f 


17 


The  Improvement  of  the  City 

Elementary  School  Teacher 

in   Service 


BY  CHARLES  RUSSELL 


Submitted   in   Partial   Fulfillment   of   the 

Requirements  for  the   Degree  of  Doctor 

of  Philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy, 

Columbia  University 


Published  by 
College,  Columbia 

New  York  City 
1922 


The  Improvement  of  the  City 

Elementary  School  Teacher 

in   Service 


BY  CHARLES  RUSSELL 


Submitted  in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  the 

Requirements  for  the  Degree  of  Doctor 

of  Philosophy  in  the  Faculty  of  Philosophy, 

Columbia  University 


Published  by 
College,  Columbia 
New  York  City 
1922 


Copyright,  1922  by  CHARLES  RUSSELL 

,  . 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

To  Dr.  William  C.  Bagley,  Dr.  Milo  B.  Hilligas, 
and  Dr.  William  H.  Kilpatrick,  who  have  guided  me 
throughout  this  study  with  sympathy  and  patience  I 
owe  that  debt  of  gratitude  which  students  owe  to 
their  true  teachers. 

Among  the  many  others  who  have  contributed  in 
some  measure  to  the  completion  of  this  work  Dr, 
Frank  M.  McMurry,  Dr.  I.  L.  Kandel,  and  my  father 
have  added  much  through  their  kindly  criticisms  and 
encouragement. 

To  all  the  teachers,  fellow  students,  and  teachers- 
in-service  who  have  helped  me  to  clearer  thinking  I 
express  my  sincere  thanks. 

CHARLES  RUSSELL 


4871 


O  U 


CONTENTS 

Page 

I.  RISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  AGENCIES 
FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  TEACHERS  IN 
SERVICE 

INTRODUCTION 1 

THE  TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE  AS  A  FACTOR 1 

THE  CHAUTAUQUA  AS  A  FACTOR 4 

SUPERVISION  OF  SCHOOLS  AS  A  FACTOR 5 

UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  AS  A  FACTOR 8 

II.  THE  CHARACTER  OF  PRESENT  DAY  AGENCIES 

EXTENSION  ACTIVITIES 14 

TEACHERS'  MEETINGS 32 

DEVICES 47 

PROFESSIONAL  SUPERVISION 65 

WORK  WITH  NEW  TEACHERS 71 

III.  THE  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

THE  SOURCES  OF  IMPROVEMENT 86 

THE  KINDS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 87 

THE  PERIODS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 88 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  ACQUISITION  OF  TECHNIQUE 

IN  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 89 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  INCREASE  OF  MASTERY  OF 

SUBJECT-MATTER    WITH    THE    TEACHER    IN 

SERVICE 103 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  INCREASE  IN  THE  IDEALISM 

OF  TEACHERS 123 

IV.  A  SUGGESTED  SCHEME  OF  IMPROVEMENT 
FOR  A  CITY 

THE  NOVICE 126 

THE  JOURNEYMAN  TEACHER 127 

THE  GRADUATE  TEACHER 130 

THE  MASTER  TEACHER 130 

V.  BIBLIOGRAPHY    OF    CITY    REPORTS    CITED 

IN  TEXT..  135 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  RISE  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE 

AGENCIES  FOR  THE  IMPROVEMENT 

OF  TEACHERS  IN  SERVICE 

The  improvement  of  the  teacher  in  service  represents  one  of 
the  oldest  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  recent  developments 
in  the  field  of  education.  It  represents  one  of  the  oldest  phases  in 
that  for  the  earliest  teachers  the  large  part  of  improvement  came 
in  service.  It  represents  one  of  the  most  recent  phases,  in  that  the 
past  few  years  have  witnessed  remarkable  efforts  on  the  part  of 
teachers  to  improve  while  in  service,  and  on  the  part  of  administra- 
tors and  boards  of  control  to  supply  the  means  through  which 
these  efforts  might  be  realized.  The  increasing  appreciation  of 
the  difficulty  of  supplying  adequately  trained  teachers  through  pre- 
service  training  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  increasing  appreciation 
of  the  importance  of  universal  elementary  education  on  the  other, 
have  combined  to  give  to  the  problem  of  the  improvement  of  the 
elementary  school  teacher  while  in  service  a  fundamental  signifi- 
cance. 

Because  of  the  pressures  upon  teachers  to  provide  a  better 
education  for  the  children  of  this  country,  and  because  of  other 
factors, — such  as  the  varying  needs  of  teachers,  the  opportunities 
which  are  available  because  of  the  characteristics  of  their  work,  and 
the  extent  to  which  different  types  of  service  for  teachers  are 
possible, — there  have  developed  a  large  number  of  different  agencies 
designed  in  some  cases  primarily  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  teachers, 
and  in  other  cases,  when  not  so  designed,  so  utilized  because  of 
their  adaptability  to  satisfy  these  needs. 

Most  of  the  agencies  now  operating  trace  their  beginnings  to 
one  or  more  of  four  great  movements,  all  originally  more  or  less 
independent  of  each  other,  but  in  the  end  all  contributing  to  the 
same  result.  One  of  these  movements  started  in  close  relation  to, 
and  almost  simultaneously  with,  the  early  efforts  in  this  country  to 
give  pre-service  training  to  teachers.  The  same  year,  1839,  that 


2  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

saw  the  first  state  normal  school  established  in  Massachusetts  saw 
also  the  establishment  by  Henry  Barnard  of  what  is  now  known  as 
the  Teachers'  Institute.  This  first  institute  was  really  in  the 
nature  of  a  summer  school,  as  it  continued  for  six  weeks  during  the 
summer.  In  1850,  in  his  first  report,  Henry  Barnard,  State 
Superintendent  of  Common  Schools  in  Connecticut,  wrote, 

The  object  and  legitimate  scope  of  these  meetings  must  be,  not  to  become 
a  substitute  for  the  patient,  thorough,  and  protracted  study,  which  the  master- 
ship of  any  branch  of  knowledge  requires  — nor  yet  for  the  practical  drilling 
which  a  well  conducted  normal  school  alone  can  give —  but  to  refresh  the  recol- 
lection of  principles  already  acquired,  by  rapid  reviews,  and  by  new  and  safe 
methods  of  presenting  the  same,  to  communicate  hints  and  suggestions  to  aid 
in  self-improvement  from  wise  and  experienced  instructors — to  solve  the 
difficulties  and  doubts  of  the  inexperienced — and  to  enkindle  through  the  sym- 
pathies of  numbers,  engaged  in  the  same  pursuits,  the  aspirations  of  a  true 
professional  feeling. l 

The  characteristics  of  later  agencies  which  bring  teachers  to- 
gether for  purposes  of  instruction,  which  provide  instruction  at 
such  times  and  in  such  a  way  as  will  not  interfere  with  their  teach- 
ing, and  which  have  a  voluntary  attendance,  grew  directly  from 
this  agency  started  by  Henry  Barnard.  There  quickly  developed 
variations  from  this  type.  Within  six  years,  in  October  1845, 
there  appeared  in  Massachusetts  a  late  fall  institute  of  ten  days 
duration.  Rhode  Island,  under  the  leadership  of  Henry  Barnard, 
was  the  first  state  to  make  definite  provision  for  annual  institutes, 
and  from  these  beginnings  has  spread  a  movement  that  is  nearly 
universal  in  this  country  and  is  still  called  by  the  name  attached 
to  it  only  a  few  years  after  it  first  appeared. 

With  the  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers  and  with  the  ever 
larger  groupings,  the  early  character  of  the  institute  underwent 
many  changes.  The  instruction  became  more  and  more  general 
because  of  the  size  of  the  audiences.  The  difficulty  of  bringing 
the  work  into  close  relationship  with  the  individual  classrooms 
resulted  in  shorter  sessions  because  there  was  less,  from  the  tradi- 
tional standpoint,  for  the  institutes  to  do.  Other  phases  of  work 
crept  in.  Administrative  and  routine  matters  found  a  place. 
Attendance  became  a  requirement  in  many  places,  and  in  others 

Barnard,  Henry,  Extract  from  the  Fifth  Annual  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Common 
Schools  to  the  General  Assembly  of  Connecticut,  1850,  American  Journal  of  Education, 
New  Series,  No.  14,  Vol.  XXXIX,  June  1865,  p.  277. 


Historical  Development  3 

teachers  were  paid  for  attending.  State  control  appeared  which 
resulted  in  the  holding  of  many  institutes  under  compulsion.  The 
institutes  were  often  held  late  in  August  or  early  in  September  and 
much  of  the  time  was  utilized  in  administrative  preparation  for 
the  new  year's  work.  Eventually  efforts  were  made  to  bring 
about  a  closer  connection  between  the  work  of  the  institutes  and 
the  needs  of  the  teachers  in  their  classrooms.  The  large  institutes 
were  divided  into  two  parts,  one  of  which  consisted  of  general 
meetings  of  teachers  for  "inspiration  and  uplift,"  and  the  other  of 
sectional  meetings  for  purposes  of  specific  instruction.  This  is  a 
type  of  institute  frequently  found  at  the  present  time. 

In  a  recent  study  of  this  agency,  including  the  institutes  of 
forty-seven  states,  two  facts  are  revealed  which  show  the  trend 
away  from  the  early  idea  of  the  founder.  Miss  Lommen  reports: 

Attendance.  Of  the  thirty  states  requiring  institutes  by  law,  twenty-six 
require  attendance  on  the  part  of  teachers,  and  of  the  eight  states  recommend- 
ing the  institute  as  a  worthy  agency,  three  require  the  attendance  of  all  teachers 
for  certification  and  the  renewal  of  certificates.  In  thirteen  states  teachers 
are  permitted  to  exercise  volition  with  regard  to  attendance. J 

The  extent  to  which  state  control  operates  in  making  the  in- 
stitutes different  from  Barnard's  original  type  is  shown  in  the 
following : 

Maintenance  of  Institutes.  Among  the  various  plans  for  financing  these 
professional  gatherings,  eleven  state  departments  maintain  the  entire  expense 
of  their  promotion;  five  states  require  the  teachers  of  the  state  to  defray  the 
expense  of  instruction  by  payment  of  fees  for  this  purpose  and  by  the  utilization 
of  portions  of  certification  fees;  six  states  maintain  the  cost  of  these  training 
agencies  by  county  board  appropriations;  eighteen  states  combine  support 
from  the  state  departments  of  education,  county  board  appropriations,  and 
teachers'  fees.2 

Closely  allied  to  the  teachers'  institutes,  and  probably  in- 
fluenced in  large  degree  by  them,  are  the  various  "teachers'  meet- 
ings." Meetings  of  teachers  in  city  school  systems  have  two 
phases,  one  the  consideration  of  routine  school  matters,  and  the 
other  the  utilization  of  the  meetings  for  professional  improvement. 
This  latter  phase  of  the  teachers'  meeting  reflects  the  influence  of 
the  early  institute. 

1Lommen,  Georgina,  The  Teachers'  Institute  as  an  Agency  for  Training  Teachers  in  Service, 
Journal  of  Rural  Eden.  Vol.  I,  No.  2.  October,  1921,  p.  62. 
2  Ibid.  p.  63. 


4  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  teachers'  association,  closely  resembling  the  institute  in 
some  respects,  differs  from  it  in  being  a  purely  voluntary  grouping 
of  teachers,  partaking  sometimes  of  the  institute  in  its  programs, 
but  at  the  same  time  reflecting  some  of  the  characteristics  of  a  legis- 
lative and  deliberative  body,  which  deals  with  professional  prob- 
lems in  a  way  that  is  free  from  the  official  control  of  the  school 
system. 

A  different  set  of  agencies  grew  out  of  an  earlier  movement  for 
the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.  The  educational  ren- 
aissance which  produced  the  normal  school  and  the  institute, 
produced  also  the  germ  of  that  unique  American  institution,  the 
Chautauqua.  In  1826  Josiah  Holbrook,  at  Millbury,  Mass., 
started  the  Lyceum  movement,  which  in  the  next  few  years  ''spread 
rapidly  over  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut."1 

The  purpose  of  the  Lyceums  he  organized  in  the  different  towns  was  (1) 
the  improvement  of  the  common  schools,  (2)  the  formation  of  lecture  courses 
and  the  establishment  of  classes  for  the  education  of  adults,  and  (3)  the  organi- 
zation of  libraries  and  museums.2 

The  activities  of  the  Lyceum  are  well  expressed  in  this  pur- 
pose. The  American  Lyceum  Association  and  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Instruction  grew  out  of  it,  the  former  having  a  short  life 
of  but  a  decade  while  the  latter  still  is  active  to-day.  The  move- 
ment also  paved  the  way  for  the  beginning  of  the  Chautauqua 
Assembly  which  was  founded  in  1874  by  Louis  Miller  of  Akron, 
Ohio,  and  Dr.  John  H.  Vincent,  and  also  of  the  Chautauqua  Sun- 
day School  Assembly.  While  originally  started  as  a  nonsectarian 
religious  organization  the  Chautauqua  movement  soon  became  a 
general  forum  which  included  many  secular  activities.  The 
growth  was  remarkable  and  new  features  were  added  each  year  to 
the  summer  meetings.  The  Chautauqua  and  the  Lyceum  are 
interesting  more  from  the  standpoint  of  what  they  have  in  the 
past  contributed  to  the  training  and  education  of  teachers  in 
service  than  from  the  standpoint  of  what  they  are  at  the  present 
time  contributing.  Among  the  activities  of  interest  here  is,  first, 
the  establishment  in  1878  of  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scien- 
tific Circle. 

Monroe,  Will  S.,  Amer.  Lye.  Assn.,  Cyclop,  of  Ed.,  Vol.  I,  p.  111. 
2  Ibid. 


Historical  Development  5 

This  plan  of  home  reading  extending  over  four  years  and  offering  to  ma- 
ture people  what  was  described  as  "the  college  outlook"  met  with  instant 
success.1 

This  was  the  direct  inspiration  and  forerunner  of  the  reading 
circle  movement  for  the  improvement  of  the  teacher  while  in 
service.  The  purpose  of  these  reading  circles  was  to  stimulate 
teachers  to  a  professional  point  of  view  in  their  reading,  and  to 
help  them  to  become  better  teachers  by  providing  stimulating 
professional  books  in  the  subjects  of  their  interests.2  That  this 
is  an  effective  agency  in  the  improvement  of  teachers  is  suggested 
by  the  fact  that  many  states  have  made  the  reading  circle  work  a 
prerequisite  to  certification  in  higher  schedules  and  to  re-certifica- 
tion.2 In  order  to  stimulate  the  work  that  teachers  may  do  in 
reading  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  issues  a 
diploma  to  members  of  the  National  Rural  School  Teachers'  Circle 
in  recognition  of  the  successful  completion  of  certain  reading  circle 
courses.3 

A  second  factor  of  interest  was  the  development  under  Dr. 
William  R.  Harper,  in  the  year  1883,  of  the  correspondence  instruc- 
tion. This  type  of  instruction  was  given  for  several  years  by  the 
Chautauqua,  until  it  was  assumed  by  "two  or  three  leading  Uni- 
versities."1 

The  Chautauqua  itself,  though  it  draws  many  teachers  every 
year,  either  in  the  parent  organization  at  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  or  in 
the  nearly  six  hundred  similar  organizations  or  "circuits"  through- 
out the  country,  has  to-day  little  influence  upon  the  teacher  from  a 
professional  point  of  view.  The  service  that  it  has  rendered, 
however,  should  not  be  minimized.  It  has  been  a  powerful  factor, 
first,  in  developing  the  ideal  of  using  the  summer  vacation  for  pur- 
poses of  study;  secondly  in  paving  the  way  for  reading  circles  and 
correspondence  instruction;  and  thirdly  in  helping  inform  public 
opinion  with  regard  to  schools  and  the  quality  of  teachers  in 
them. 


cies 


The  genesis  of  a  third  large  development  in  the  existing  agen- 
for  the  improvement  of  teachers  may  also  be  recognized  in  the 


Vincent,  G.  E.,  Chautauqua  Movement,  Cyclop,  of  Ed.,  Vol.  I.,  p.  581. 

2See  Ruediger,  W.  C.,  Agencies  for  the  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service,  Bulletin,  U.  S. 

Bureau  of  Ed.,  No.  3,  No.  449,  1911. 

3Rept.  ofComm.  of  Ed.  of  U.  S.,  1919,  p.  103. 


6  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

first  quarter  of  the  last  century  and  is  to  be  noted  in  the  develop- 
ment and  increasing  definition  of  the  responsibilities  of  the  public 
in  the  conduct  of  education.  Certain  phases  of  this  movement  led, 
in  1837,  to  the  appointment  of  the  first  city  school  superintendent, 
(in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.),  and  in  the  gradual  delegation  of  school  authority 
by  the  controlling  lay  board  to  this  new  officer.  The  primary 
function  of  the  original  lay  board,  or  school  committee,  was  to  see 
whether  the  school  itself  was  doing  the  work  that  was  expected  of 
it.1  The  development  of  the  superintendency  and  the  school 
principalship  followed,  to  do  for  the  schools  what  it  was  becoming 
manifestly  impossible  for  a  group  of  laymen  to  do ;  namely — over- 
see the  work  of  the  school,  plan  for  its  extension,  and  maintain  its 
standards.  The  development  was  very  slow  until  after  the  Civil 
War.  Cubberley  writes: 

It  was  not,  however,  until  about  1850  or  1860,  and  one  might  almost  say 
until  after  about  1870,  that  the  special  problems  of  city  school  organization 
and  administration  began  to  attract  serious  attention.  In  the  first  place,  there 
were  but  few  cities  at  an  earlier  date,  and  these  were  relatively  small  in  size. 
Their  school  systems,  too,  were  of  relatively  simple  type,  and  their 
boards  of  school  trustees,  with  the  people  of  the  districts,  exercised  a  most 
complete  control.  But  a  few  cities  had  as  yet  created  the  office  of  superinten- 
dent of  schools,  and  the  few  which  had  assigned  clerical  rather  than  executive 
functions  to  the  new  official.  As  late  as  1870  there  were  but  twenty-seven 
city  superintendents  of  schools  employed  in  the  entire  United  States,  and  with 
but  thirteen  of  the  thirty-seven  states  represented.  As  late  as  1860,  also,  but 
sixty-nine  of  our  present  cities  are  regarded  as  having  by  that  time  organized 
a  clearly  defined  high  school  course  of  instruction. 

Since  1870  the  growth  of  the  city  school  systems  has  been  very  rapid, 
and  with  this  growth  many  new  problems  of  school  organization  and  adminis- 
tration have  been  pushed  to  the  front.  The  number  of  city  school  systems 
has  been  multiplied  rapidly  since  1870  and  the  size  of  many  then  in  existence 
has  trebled  or  quadrupled.  In  1870,  too,  there  were  but  fourteen  cities  having 
100,000  inhabitants,  and  in  1910  there  were  fifty  such  cities,  and  these  fifty 
cities  contained  22.1  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the  United  States.2 

The  increased  need  for  better  administration,  the  growing 
complexity  of  the  school  organization,  and  the  demand  for  a  better 
standardization  of  the  work  that  the  teachers  were  doing,  meant 
that  the  critical  and  constructive  activities  of  the  principals  and 

'See  Suzzallo,  H.,  Rise  of  Local  School  Supvsn  in  Mass.,  T.  C.  Cont.to  Eden.,  No.  3,  N.  Y.,  1906, 
and  Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Public  School  Administration,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  Chaps.  8  and  10. 

"Cubberley,  E.  P.,  Public  School  Administration,  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Cambridge,  Mass., 
1916,  pp.  57-60. 


Historical  Development  7 

superintendents  became  more  and  more  subordinated  to  executive 
and  clerical  routine.  Less  and  less  of  their  time  could  be  given  to 
their  original  duty,  the  inspection  of  schools. 

The  part  of  the  inspectional  scheme  that  had  originally  been 
delegated  to  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  through  him  to  the 
principals,  eventually  was  assigned  to  a  third  group  of  officers 
whose  main  task  was  the  inspection  of  schools  and  the  standardiza- 
tion of  the  work  throughout  the  school  system.  This  inspection 
was  an  impersonal  connection  as  it  related  to  the  teacher.  Its 
chief  purpose  was  a  diagnosis  of  the  school  situation  with  the  view 
of  making  changes  either  within  the  school  to  bring  it  up  to  standard 
in  certain  directions,  or  in  the  administrative  regulations  that 
would  work  toward  the  same  end.  This  type  of  inspection  was 
found  to  be  inadequate  because  the  key  to  the  situation,  the  teacher, 
had  been  neglected.  The  change  that  came  about  served  to  shift 
the  emphasis  from  the  school  system  as  the  end  to  the  child,  with 
the  improvement  and  acceleration  of  the  education  of  the  child  as 
the  chief  objective.  In  view  of  this  shift  of  emphasis  the  part 
played  by  the  supervisor  became  inspectional  only  to  the  degree 
that  the  inspection  was  necessary  in  the  location  of  difficulties 
that  prevented  the  teacher  from  achieving  the  ends  for  which  he 
was  striving. 

This  view  of  supervision  is  essentially,  then,  one  which  con- 
templates the  improvement  of  the  teacher  during  his  period  of 
service.  Out  of  it  has  come  the  use  of  the  teachers'  meetings  of 
various  kinds  within  the  school  system  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
the  equipment  of  the  teacher  in  knowledge  and  technique.  While 
the  part  that  supervision,  in  its  most  sympathetic  and  personal 
aspects,  can  play  in  this  improvement  is  large,  there  is  much  in 
the  improvement  of  the  teacher  that  is  not  within  the  real  province 
of  the  supervisor.  Because  of  the  close  official  relation  of  the  super- 
visor to  the  administration  of  the  school  system,  it  is  very  difficult 
for  the  supervisor  or  for  supervision  to  do  for  the  teacher  all  that 
may  be  included  in  the  term  improvement.  The  official  relation- . 
ship  becomes  in  many  cases  a  repressive  factor.  There  are  other 
agencies  the  freer  character  of  which  makes  them  more  welcome  to 
the  teacher.  As  a  consequence  agencies  which  cannot  be  classed  as 
supervisory  are  now  contributing  much  to  the  teacher's  improve- 
ment. 


8  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

In  its  most  recent  development  supervision  has  recognized 
both  the  inspectional  and  the  improvement  phases.  This  is  illus- 
trated by  the  trend  in  Detroit,  where  the  supervisors  are  in  reality 
experimental  investigators.  Their  chief  purposes  are,  first,  to 
locate  the  difficulties  in  teaching,  and  secondly,  to  devise  ways  and 
means  for  helping  the  teachers  to  correct  them.  The  early  phases 
of  this  service  are  inspectional  in  character,  while  the  later  phases 
are  supervisory  in  the  narrower  sense.  For  the  Detroit  teachers, 
too,  elements  of  improvement  also  come  in  other  ways  than  through 
supervision.1 

The  fourth  source  from  which  present-day  agencies  for  the 
improvement  of  teachers  have  evolved  is  a  more  recent  develop- 
ment than  the  others — namely,  the  extension  movement.  The 
character  of  university  extension,  as  it  first  developed,  is  very  well 
described  in  the  German  translation  of  the  term,  Volkshochschulen 
— "higher  schools  for  the  people."  It  is  interesting  to  note,  how- 
ever, that  the  earliest  form  of  extension,  in  1867  in  England,  was  in 
connection  with  the  improvement  of  teachers.  Mr.  James  Stuart, 
fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  was  invited  "by  an  associa- 
tion of  ladies,  mostly  school  teachers,  to  lecture  to  them  in  the 
north  of  England  on  the  art  of  teaching."2 

The  movement,  by  which  the  Universities  of  Cambridge  and 
Oxford  [several  years  later]  were  able  to  extend  the  opportunities  of 
higher  education  to  those  unable  to  attend  the  sessions  of  the  Uni- 
versity itself,  began  rapidly  at  first ;  then  later,  as  certain  problems 
of  finance  became  intrusive,  it  remained  nearly  stationary  for  a 
decade  or  more;  then,  as  the  problems  were  solved,  interest  again 
increased. 

The  extent  of  the  movement  in  England  by  1892-93,  is  shown 
by  the  following  data:  for  the  session  1892-93  in  the  four  centers  in 
England,  Oxford,  Cambridge,  London  and  Victoria,  245  short 
courses  were  given,  362  courses  of  ten  or  more  lectures  and  a  total 
of  669  courses  of  all  kinds.  There  were  in  addition  57,149  attend- 
ing individuals,  out  of  whom  7,509  workers  submitted  weekly  papers 
and  of  whom  4,256  passed  the  final  examination.3 

1  Notably  in  opportunities  for  part-time  University  and  College  work  during  the  school  year  as 

well  as  in  the  summer. 

2Russell,  J.  E.,  Extension  of  University  Teaching  in  England  and  America,  Ext.  Bui.  of  Univ. 

of  State  of  N.  Y.,  No.  10,  Oct.,  1895.,  p.  162. 

'Russell,  J.  E.,  op.  cit.,  condensation  of  tables,  p.  221. 


Historical  Development  9 

In  the  United  States  the  "English  scheme  of  university  exten- 
sion" was  laid  before  "the  American  Library  Association  in  session 
at  the  Thousand  Islands  in  1887" l  and  the  first  course  was  given 
in  Buffalo  in  the  winter  of  1887-88.  The  Chautauqua  speakers  of 
1888  advocated  it  and  recommended  its  adoption  in  this  country. 
In  three  centers  in  the  United  States — Philadelphia,  New  York, 
and  Chicago — 229  short  courses  were  given  in  1892-93;  35  courses 
were  of  ten  or  more  lectures;  and  the  total  offering  amounted  to 
264  courses  of  all  kinds.  The  attendance  aggregated  47,31 1  people, 
of  whom  1,377  prepared  papers  weekly,  and  out  of  whom  1,016 
passed  the  final  examination.2 

The  work  done  in  these  years  and  later,  established  the  princi- 
ples of  extension  work  as  they  now  apply  to  teachers:  first,  the 
feasiblity  of  individuals  taking  work  of  collegiate  grade  in  centers 
away  from  institutions  of  higher  learning ;  secondly,  the  feasibility 
of  voluntary  attendance  and  support ;  and  thirdly,  the  demonstrated 
value  of  professional  study  on  a  part-time  basis.  There  have  been 
many  modifications,  so  that  there  are  now  both  intramural  and 
extramural  extension  through  regular  classes  and  correspondence 
extension  modeled  after  the  early  efforts  of  the  Chautauqua  move- 
ment. The  idea  has  spread  to  the  normal  schools,  colleges,  and 
even  to  the  encouragement  of  the  work  by  boards  of  education 
sponsored  in  many  cases  by  these  other  institutions. 

Growing  out  of  the  demonstrated  demand  that  was  evidenced 
by  the  popularity  of  the  Chautauqua  movement,  stimulated  di- 
rectly by  many  of  the  specific  activities  of  the  Chautauqua  meetings, 
and  partaking  of  the  collegiate  character  of  the  university  extension 
movement,  the  summer  session  has  become  an  established  part  of 
the  work  of  higher  educational  institutions.  While  these  sessions 
have  offered  a  great  variety  of  courses  calculated  to  attract  and 
cater  to  a  wide  range  of  people,  the  summer  session  from  the  first 
has  been  regarded  by  teachers  as  a  medium  of  education  peculiarly 
adapted  to  their  needs  and  conditions. 

The  extent  to  which  to-day  the  teacher  of  this  country  is  avail- 
ing himself  of  these  various  summer  sessions  is  tremendous. 

There  were  410  institutions  which  reported  having  summer  sessions  in 
1921,  with  a  total  of  253,111  students,  a  gain  of  62,105  students,  or  about  32 

1  Russell,  J.  E.,  ibid.,  p.  176. 
2Ibid,  p.  221. 


10  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

per  cent  over  1920.  Of  these  institutions  241  were  universities  and  degree 
granting  colleges.  Their  1921  summer  enrollment  was  143,154,  as  compared 
with  111,617  in  1920.  The  gain  of  31,537  is  28  per  cent.  This  28  per  cent 
gain  is  the  more  striking  when  compared  with  the  3  per  cent  loss  in  the  enroll- 
ment of  full  time  regular  students  in  1920-21  as  compared  with  1919-20  in  the 
30  American  Universities  annually  considered  in  School  and  Society,  the  en- 
rollments of  these  30  being  135,895  for  1919-20  and  132,091  for  1920-21. l 

Several  factors  working  together  in  harmony  have  resulted 
in  this  remarkable  attendance  on  the  part  of  teachers  in  the  various 
summer  sessions  of  the  nation.  The  two  chief  factors  on  the 
material  side  are,  first,  that  the  regular  year  of  the  teachers  in  which 
they  must  be  present  and  active  in  their  teaching  positions  corre- 
sponds very  generally  with  the  working  year  of  the  colleges  and 
universities.  This  correspondence  means  that  the  teachers  are 
professionally  employed  during  the  same  period  that  the  colleges, 
universities,  and  teachers'  colleges  are  employed  in  serving  their 
primary  pre-professional  and  academic  ends;  while  the  traditional 
vacation  period  of  the  teachers  coincides  very  closely  with  the 
traditional  vacation  periods  of  the  institutions.  The  second  chief 
factor  is  that  during  the  traditional  vacation  periods  prior  to  the 
era  of  the  summer  session  all  of  the  institutional  plants  were  idle. 
From  the  economic  standpoint  this  had  been  a  great  waste.  When, 
therefore,  the  greater  utilization  of  the  institutional  plants  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  more  continuous  service  of  the  faculties  on  the 
other  were  possible  through  summer  courses  offered  by  colleges 
and  universities,  both  were  very  desirable  innovations  from  the 
institutional  point  of  view.  It  was  entirely  logical  that  these 
summer  sessions  should  serve  in  a  large  measure  the  elementary 
and  high  school  teachers,  because  the  teaching  profession  as  a  body 
was  the  only  large  professional  group  of  individuals  that  was  free 
at  that  time  to  avail  itself  of  the  summer  session  opportunities. 
A  further  factor  needs  to  be  mentioned,  for  without  it  the  present 
high  attendance  at  summer  sessions  would  be  practically  impos- 
sible— namely,  the  increasing  ability  of  the  teachers  from  a  financial 
standpoint  to  pursue  the  work. 

A  further  development  of  the  university  extension  movement, 
and  one  that  traces  its  beginnings  as  well  to  the  normal  school  de- 
velopment, is  the  establishment,  in  our  larger  cities,  of  colleges  of 

falters,  Raymond,  Journal  of  the  National  Education  Association,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Vol. 
XI,  No.  1,  Jan.  1922,  p.  12. 


Historical  Development  11 

education,  either  in  connection  with  the  local  tax-supported  univer- 
sities or  growing  out  of  the  activities  of  the  local  city  training 
school  for  teachers,  which  offer  to  teachers  while  in  service  educa- 
tional opportunities  for  improvement  in  their  work  during  the  period 
when  the  schools  are  in  session.  The  factors  that  have  led  to  this 
development  are  first,  the  short  school  day,  and  second,  the  short 
school  week.  Classes  at  the  local  institutions  are  given  in  the  late 
afternoons,  in  the  evenings,  and  on  Saturday  mornings,  when  teach- 
ers are  free  to  take  them.  St.  Louis  established,  in  1904,  the 
Harris  Teachers'  College.  In  connection  with  its  municipal  uni- 
versity, in  1905,  Cincinnati  established  a  College  of  Education 
which  serves  the  needs  of  the  teachers  of  that  city.  The  College 
of  Education  of  the  University  of  the  City  of  Toledo,  another 
locally  tax-supported  institution,  was  established  in  1916,  and  a 
recent  addition  was  the  extension  of  the  Detroit  Training  School 
for  Teachers  into  a  four-year  teachers'  college,  in  1920. 

Another  phase  of  this  same  development  is  the  work  offered 
by  local  institutions,  not  municipally  controlled  or  supported,  and 
not  directly  under  the  control  of  the  board  of  education.  They 
offer  both  academic  and  professional  work  for  the  teachers  of  the 
local  district  in  their  colleges  or  departments  of  education.  The 
teachers  in  Buffalo  are  enabled  to  take  professional  work  in  the 
University  of  Buffalo  or  in  Canisius  College,1  and  there  has  just 
recently  been  developed  a  plan  for  cooperative  effort  between  the 
Board  of  Education  of  Cleveland  and  Western  Reserve  University.2 

In  the  chapter  which  immediately  follows,  a  very  chaotic 
condition  in  the  present  character  of  the  work  offered  to  teachers 
while  in  service  may  be  noted.  Many  different  agencies  have 
developed  to  do  the  same  sort  of  work  for  teachers.  Certain 
agencies  attempt  to  do  a  great  many  different  things.  Improve- 
ment is  recognized  in  many  different  ways,  and  takes  many  different 
forms.  Agencies  under  the  same  title  have  developed  in  different 
localities  in  very  different  ways.  In  some  cases  the  use  of  the 
same  agency  is  voluntary  and  in  others  compulsory.  In  spite  of 
these  incongruities  it  is  evident  that  the  improvement  of  teachers 
while  in  service  is  one  of  the  very  active  interests  of  our  present-day 

JSee  page  80. 

2  The  Professional  Education  of  Teachers  in  Cleveland,   Western  Reserve  University  Bulletin, 

West.  Reserve  Univ.,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  Vol.  XXV,  No.  3,  March,  1922. 


12  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

education.  The  multiplicity  of  agencies,  and  the  demands  of 
teachers,  require  that  if  the  efforts  that  are  being  made  shall  result 
in  definite  progress,  the  fundamentals  of  the  improvement  of 
teachers  should  be  recognized,  and  definite  steps  taken  to  provide 
for  teachers  the  systematic  and  progressive  satisfaction  of  their 
needs. 

Economically  the  progressive  and  orderly  improvement  of 
our  teachers  is  of  the  highest  importance.  The  problems  of  the 

v  retarded  children  of  our  elementary  schools,  of  the  children  who 
should  be  accelerated  and  are  not,  the  means  of  developing  higher 

v  teaching  efficiency  in  young  teachers,  and  of  maintaining  that  high 
efficiency  in  older  teachers,  are  all  definitely  correlated  with  the 
problems  of  teacher  improvement.  The  cost  of  the  re-education 
of  children  who  have  been  badly  taught,  and  of  the  needless  efforts 
spent  on  children  who  should  be  advanced  more  rapidly,  might 
well  be  diverted  to  the  improvement  of  teachers.  With  teachers 
better  qualified  for  their  work — better  able  to  teach  their  children — 
many  of  these  difficulties  would  probably  be  eliminated,  and  from 
such  a  situation  would  result  untold  cumulative  benefits  to  the 
nation  in  the  development  of  a  more  intelligent,  better  educated, 
more  highly  qualified  generation  of  citizens. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is,  first,  to  discover  the  agencies 
which  are  concerned  with  the  improvement  of  the  elementary 
school  teacher  of  our  city  public  schools  and  are  at  work  at  the 
present  time,  secondly,  to  develop  the  fundamentals  of  improve- 
ment of  teachers  while  in  service,  by  which  the  value  of  these 
agencies  may  be  judged,  and  thirdly,  to  build  up,  in  the  light  of 
these  fundamentals,  a  constructive  scheme  of  improvement  for 
the  elementary  school  teachers  in  service  in  a  city. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  CHARACTER  OF  PRESENT-DAY 
AGENCIES 

The  data  contained  in  this  chapter  have  been  obtained  mainly 
from  the  reports  of  superintendents  of  the  schools,  for  the  years 
1911-1920,  in  cities  which  in  the  1920  Census  of  the  United  States 
were  reported  as  having  populations  of  20,000  inhabitants  or  more. 
Reports  from  other  years  earlier  or  later  than  these  were  consulted 
in  many  cases.  In  a  few  cases  some  of  these  data  are  included. 
Seven  hundred  seventy-eight  reports  from  one  hundred  ninety- 
seven  different  cities  were  carefully  read  for  evidence  as  to  the 
work  clone  by  or  for  teachers  in  service.  Data  were  obtained 
from  one  hundred  nineteen  of  these  cities.  Other  authorities 
have  been  consulted,  including  educational  journals,  reports  of 
colleges  and  universities,  and  normal  schools,  and  in  a  few  cases 
certain  cities  were  visited  in  order  to  become  more  familiar  with  the 
prevailing  conditions. 

The  data  thus  obtained  were  classified  according  to  the  type 
of  agencies  operating,  and  the  following  organization  has  been 
adopted  to  show  in  a  qualitative  form  the  character  of  the  agencies 
found  to  be  at  work.  It  was  found  that  all  of  the  agencies  could 
be  conveniently  included  under  the  five  headings  given;  (1)  Ex- 
tension Activities;  (2)  Teachers'  Meetings;  (3)  Devices;  (4)  Pro- 
fessional Supervision;  and  (5)  Work  with  New  Teachers.  The 
following  pages  do  not  contain  all  the  data  that  were  obtained,  nor 
do  they  presume  to  contain  all  of  the  agencies  at  work  in  this 
country.  They  do  contain  a  qualitative  characterization,  however, 
of  all  the  agencies  contained  in  the  original  data.  The  places  and 
examples  given  are  cited  as  illustrative  merely  of  the  character  of 
agency  in  question  and  do  not  pretend  to  include  all  of  the 
cities  which  have  similar  agencies  at  work.  The  headings  and 
sub-headings  of  the  outline  serve  to  explain  the  method  of 
organization. 


14  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

I.  EXTENSION  ACTIVITIES 

(I)    UNIVERSITY  AND  COLLEGE  EXTENSION 
1.    AT  THE  INSTITUTION 

In  most  cases  where  the  reports  of  superintendents  mentioned 
the  teacher  as  taking  work  at  institutions  the  work  mentioned  was 
of  professional  rather  than  academic  character.  As  will  be  seen 
in  a  few  cases  given  below,  however,  even  those  institutions  cited 
which  offer  professional  study  may  offer  a  certain  amount  of 
academic  study  at  the  same  time  and  on  an  equal  footing  with  the 
professional  study  which  they  offer. 

(1)  ACADEMIC   TYPE    OF   WORK. 

As  an  example  of  this  type  of  work  Cedar  Rapids  reports  the 
maintenance  of, 

relations  with  Coe  College  [an  academic  institution]  by  which  the  teachers 
have  received  the  benefits  of  courses  of  lectures  given  by  men  of  promi- 
nence in  the  work  of  education.  (Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  1913-14,  p.  39). J 

(2)  PROFESSIONAL   TYPE    OF   WORK. 

There  are  several  outstanding  plans  in  various  cities,  which 
illustrate  this  especially  well.  The  four  plans  citied  as  examples 
illustrate  four  different  plans  of  organization  and  administration 
of  the  work  and  four  different  types  of  control. 

St.  Louis  Plan. 

Through  the  medium  of  a  State  Teachers'  College  located  in 
the  city  and  closely  connected  administratively  with  the  city 
school  system,  which  it  is  primarily  designed  to  serve,  the  teachers 
of  St.  Louis  are  enabled  to  pursue  courses  during  the  winter 
months,  as  well  as  in  the  summer,  toward  a  degree. 

One  of  the  most  inspiring  chapters  in  St.  Louis  educational  history  con- 
cerns itself  with  the  enthusiasm  with  which  teachers  have  availed  themselves 
of  these  courses,  and  now  that  a  plan  has  been  outlined  whereby  tangible  means 
of  progress  are  evident  both  in  the  opportunity  for  wider  service  in  the  schools 
and  in  the  direction  of  a  degree,  this  has  been  one  of  the  strongest  factors  in 
inducing  teachers  to  plan  their  work,  to  work  consistently  for  credit,  and  to 
persist  in  the  classes  to  the  end.  Credits  earned  at  other  colleges  and  at  uni- 

'See  Bibliography  of  City  Reports,  p.  135. 


Present-Day  Agencies  15 

versities  may  be  entered  upon  the  college  records,  and  be  counted  toward  a 
degree.  This  makes  it  possible  for  more  teachers  to  have  additional  training 
and  to  enjoy  the  inspiring  and  rejuvenating  effect  of  working  out  common 
problems  with  fellow  workers.1 

The  courses  that  are  taken  may  be  grouped  in  the  following 
way. 

Teachers  who  desire  to  do  so  may  pursue  courses  leading  to  the  A.  B. 
Degree  in  Education  with  special  emphasis  upon  any  of  the  following  subjects: 

(1)  the  teaching  and  the  supervision  of  such  special  subjects  as  drawing,  music, 
physical  education,  household  arts,  etc.,  in  the  elementary  and  high  schools; 

(2)  the  teaching  and  supervision  of  the  primary  grades;  (3)  the  teaching  of 
elementary  and  secondary  mathematical,  physical,  biological,  and  general 
sciences;  (4)  the  teaching  of  history  and  of  English  in  the  elementary  and  high 
schools;  (5)  elementary  school  supervision  and  administration;  (6)  departmen- 
tal teaching  in  the  upper  grades;  (7)  the  teaching  in  ungraded  rooms  and  in 
special  schools  for  feeble-minded,   anaemic,   pre-tubercular,   deaf,   speech- 
defective,  and  backward  children;  (8)  psychology  and  the  social  sciences.2 

A  unique  device  mentioned  in  the  first  of  these  citations  has 
developed  in  St.  Louis  and  is  known  as  the  "six-year  plan."  A  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  this  plan  is  given  as  follows. 

The  work  of  the  William  Torrey  Harris  Teachers'  College,  for  teachers  al- 
ready in  service,  has  had  a  most  significant  development.  In  1908  summer 
extension  courses  had  been  established  and  over  300  principals  and  teachers 
were  enrolled.  This  important  work  has  been  continued.  The  greatest  ex- 
pansion however  has  been  in  the  winter  extension  courses.  These  had  been 
inaugurated  during  Dr.  Soldan's  administration  and  were  enrolling  approxi- 
mately 500  teachers  when  Mr.  Blewett  came  into  the  superintendency.  The 
number  enrolled  increased,  however,  until  in  the  year  1916-17,  1,018  individ- 
uals were  taking  one  or  more  courses. 

With  this  increased  attendance  came  greater  differentiation  and  increased 
numbers  of  courses.  The  history  of  the  enrollment  in  these  various  courses 
provided  for  organizing  them  into  a  scheme  involving  offerings  of  courses  for 
a  period  of  six  years  in  1916-17.  By  this  means  teachers  have  been  enabled 
to  lay  out  a  complete  course  for  the  A.  B.  Degree.  As  a  result  the  extension 
work  of  the  College  has  grown  not  only  in  numbers  enrolled  but  in  a  continuity 
and  purpose  which  have  made  the  extension  work  an  integral  part  of  the  ser- 
vice of  the  College  to  the  schools  of  the  city.  (St.  Louis,  Mo.,  (1.)  1916-17, 
p.  67.) 

The  character  of  this  plan  is  described  in  the  same  report. 

The  purpose  of  the  six-year  plan  indicated  in  the  Public  School  Messenger 
of  October,  1916,  is  intended  to  encourage  all  teachers  by  indicating  a  number 

'Public  School  Messenger,  St.  Louis,  Vol.  XVIII,  No.  2,  January  1920,  p.  17. 
2Ibid.,  p.  18. 


16  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

of  years  in  advance  the  number  and  character  of  courses  that  will  be  given  and 
thus  make  it  possible  for  a  teacher  to  plan  her  work  some  years  in  advance  with 
the  hope  of  being  able  to  realize  her  plan  without  losing  her  salary  or  her 
position.  (St.  Louis,  Mo.,  (3)  1916-17,  p.  149.) 

As  two  extreme  examples  of  a  large  number  of  courses  that 
were  offered  to  the  St.  Louis  teachers  in  1920,  the  following  are 
cited. 

Philosophy  of  Bergson. 

Questions  such  as  the  following  will  be  discussed:  How  does  the  philoso- 
phy of  Bergson  differ  from  both  Realism  and  Idealism?  What  is  its  practical 
contribution?  Why  have  workers  in  such  separate  fields  as  science  and  religion 
found  great  inspiration  in  it?  The  readings  are  in  "Matter  and  Memory"  and 
"Creative  Evolution." l 

The  Motivation  of  Geography  Through  Materials  of  St.  Louis  Area. 

There  is  practically  no  topic  in  physical  or  economic  geography  that  is  not 
represented  in  whole  or  in  part  in  the  St.  Louis  area,  and  good  teaching  re- 
quires an  acquaintance  with  this  material.  The  course  includes  field  trips  in 
physical  and  economic  geography,  supplemented  with  library  readings.  A 
detailed  study  of  type  industries  is  made  from  the  standpoint  of  motivation 
material  involved.2 

The  Cincinnati  Plan. 

In  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  work  for  teachers  in  service  is  offered  by 
a  College  for  Teachers  closely  affiliated  with  the  public  school 
system  and  an  integral  part  of  the  municipal  University  of  Cincin- 
nati. The  character  of  the  agency  is  described  as  follows: 

The  College  for  Teachers  .  .  .  also  aids  systematically  in  the  im- 
portant work  of  improving  teachers  already  in  service  by  offering  annually  in 
late  afternoon  and  Saturday  hours  collegiate  courses  and  seminars  in  educa- 
tion ;  for  example  in  1 9 1 2  twelve  such  courses  were  offered .  M  any  other  courses 
especially  for  teachers  are  offered  by  members  of  the  departments  in  the 
College  of  Liberal  Arts;  by  the  instructors  in  the  Cincinnati  Kindergarten 
Training  School,  which  is  organically  affiliated  with  the  University;  by  in- 
structors in  the  Art  Academy  of  Cincinnati,  and  by  special  supervisors  of  the 
Cincinnati  Public  Schools.  (Cincinnati,  Ohio,  (1)  1914,  p.  106.) 

The  way  in  which  work  is  carried  out  is  described  by  Dean 
W.  P.  Burris  as  follows: 

This  phase  of  the  work  of  the  college  [the  improvement  of  the  teachers  in 
service]  received  added  attention  the  past  year  and  you  have  already  taken 

1  Public  School  Messenger,  St.  Louis,  p.  ,57. 
2 /bid.  p.  40. 


Present-Day  Agencies  17 

steps  which  will  insure  a  higher  standard  in  much  of  the  work  done  by  teachers 
and  offered  for  "professional  credit."  In  accordance  with  such  steps  all 
courses  offered  for  such  credit  will  hereafter  be  subject  to  the  scrutiny  and 
recommendation  of  a  committee  consisting  of  the  professors  of  education  in 
the  college  and  the  assistant  superintendents  of  schools,  the  Dean  of  the  college 
acting  as  chairman. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  school  year  I  prepared  an  announcement  of  all 
courses  given  at  the  University  and  elsewhere  in  the  city  in  the  late  afternoons, 
evenings  and  on  Saturdays,  which  are  open  to  teachers.  This  announcement 
was  published  in  the  School  Index  with  an  introduction  by  you  stating  the  con- 
ditions under  which  credit  would  be  allowed.  These  conditions  were  also 
embodied  in  circulars  sent  out  from  my  office  to  all  persons  conducting  such 
courses,  and  reports  from  them  were  collected  by  me  upon  blanks  provided  for 
that  purpose  and  forwarded  to  you  after  a  careful  checking  of  the  same.  Ac- 
companying these  reports  was  a  tabulated  exhibit  showing  the  subjects  of  the 
various  courses  taken,  the  time  given  to  each,  by  whom  conducted,  and  the 
enrollment.  (Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1916,  pp.  112-113.) 

The  Detroit  Plan. 

The  development  of  the  Detroit  Teachers  College  is  described 
in  a  recent  number  of  the  Detroit  Educational  Bulletin. 

Detroit  Teachers'  College  is  an  integral  part  of  the  city  school  system, 
operating  under  the  direct  control  of  the  superintendent  and  in  closest  co- 
operation with  other  educational  divisions.  It  was  established  in  September, 
1920,  and  replaced  the  normal  school  which  had  been  operated  by  the  city  for 
many  years. 

The  special  function  of  Teachers'  College  is  teacher  training,  broadly 
conceived.  The  continued  training  of  teachers  in  service,  the  supervision  and 
training  of  probationary  teachers,  and  the  making  of  new  teachers  are  the 
three  major  divisions  of  its  teacher  training  activities,  while  the  fact  that  the 
Dean  of  Teachers'  College  is  also  the  Director  of  Instruction,  Teacher  Training 
and  Research  shows  how  closely  the  work  of  the  college  is  related  to  supervision 
and  the  direction  of  teaching  on  the  one  hand  and  to  the  measurement  and  re- 
search activities  on  the  other. 

The  training  of  teachers  in  service  is  achieved  mainly  through  afternoon, 
evening  and  Saturday  classes,  and  by  personal  conference  between  faculty 
members  and  members  of  the  teaching  corps  working  upon  special  problems. 
During  the  winter  of  1920-21,  2,500  teachers  from  the  public,  private  and 
parochial  schools  of  the  city  were  enrolled  in  such  classes,  while  during  the 
six  weeks'  summer  session  in  1921,  1,200  were  in  attendance.  The  interest 
and  enthusiasm  which  prompt  such  study  and  experimentation  play  a  vital 
part  in  making  possible  the  Detroit  program  of  progress.  Accordingly  the 
college  considers  this  division  of  its  work  of  major  importance.1 

1  Detroit  Educational  Bulletin,  Detroit,  Mich.,  Vol.  5,  Special  No.  2,  October  1921,  p.  3 


18  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  work  offered  by  the  Detroit  Teachers'  College  is  a  four- 
year  curriculum. 

The  first  two  years  qualify  the  student  to  receive  a  Michigan  State  Life 
Certificate  to  teach  in  the  elementary  grades;  the  second  two  years  prepare  for 
the  teaching  of  special  subjects  in  the  elementary  or  intermediate  schools.1 

To  be  accepted  as  a  candidate  for  a  degree,  a  student  (1)  must  be  in  good 
physical  health,  (2)  must  have  a  score  in  a  standard  intelligence  test  exceeding 
that  of  the  lower  25%  of  second  year  students,  exception  will  be  made  in 
favor  of  those  of  lower  score  when  their  marks  in  all  the  courses  that  have  been 
taken  are  uniformly  of  average  grade  or  better,  and  (3)  must  choose  a  field 
of  major  interest  about  which  to  organize  his  work.  This  election  may  be 
any  one  of  the  following: 

1.  Physical  Education  8.  Music 

2.  Kindergarten  and  Primary  Grades  9.  Art 

3.  English  10.  Nature  Study 

4.  Mathematics  11.  Auditorium 

5.  Language  12.  Special  Education 

6.  History  13.  Library 

7.  Geography  14.  Administration 

There  are  five  main  lines  of  development  represented  in  the  standard 
curriculum,  the  personal,  the  cultural,  the  professional,  the  technical,  and  the 
practical.  .  .  . 

PERSONAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

[Note.  The  discussions  under  these  heads  are  very  interesting.  For 
the  details  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  original.] 

Under  this  head  are  listed  the  possibilities  of  a  teacher's  develop- 
ment and  in  this  field  there  are  given  in  parentheses  the  catalogue 
numbers  of  the  courses  that  are  offered  which  meet  the  require- 
ments. Some  of  the  needs  are  "personal  standards  of  health  and 
efficiency,"  ability  to  "speak  and  write  correct  English,"  how  to 
"spend,  save,  and  invest  his  salary,"  and  how  to  apply  "the  essen- 
tial laws  of  nutrition"  and  "exercise."  (p.  3) 

CULTURAL  DEVELOPMENT. 

The  needs  here  are  in  few  cases  "a  good  general  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  music  and  art,"  to  be  "thoroughly  scientific  in  .  . 
.  attitudes  and  modes  of  thinking,"  and  a  "study  of  the  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  society." 

1  Requirements  for  a  Bachelor's  Degree,  Bd.  of  Ed.,  Detroit,  Mich.,  October,  1921,  p.  1. 


Present-Day  Agencies  19 

PROFESSIONAL  TRAINING. 

A  teacher  must  have  something  more  than  a  narrow  vocational  training. 
Even  professional  skill  must  rest  upon  a  broad  foundation  of  general  or  theoret- 
ical work.  For  instance,  a  teacher  needs  to  study  the  nature  of  a  teacher's 
work  .  .  . ,  to  know  the  structure  and  functions  of  a  school  system  as  a  whole 
.  .  . ,  and  to  master  the  general  content  and  organization  of  the  curriculum. 
...  He  needs  also  to  know  the  story  of  the  evolution  of  present  day  institu- 
tions and  practices  .  .  .  and  the  significance  of  education  as  a  social  activity. 
.  .  .  Finally,  he  should  know  the  history  and  organization  of  his  special 
department  .  .  .  ,  its  special  content  .  .  .  ,  and  its  special  methods.  .  .  . 

TECHNICAL  TRAINING. 

What  is  here  advocated  is  "actual  practice  in  measuring  chil- 
dren physically,  mentally,  and  educationally,"  "training  in  experi- 
mental methods,"  specific  review  of  "  the  methods  of  work  in  the 
primary  grades  .  .  .  ,  and  the  subject  matter  of  the  two  import- 
ant subjects  of  the  elementary  grades,  arithmetic  ....  and 
geography  .  .  .  ." 

PRACTICE  COURSES. 

In  the  case  of  this  teachers'  college  the  courses  given  in  the  "even- 
ing sessions"  parallel  in  large  measure  the  courses  in  the  "standard 
curriculum"  and  in  the  above  bulletin  two  pages  are  given  to 
listing  the  numbers  of  the  evening  session  courses  and  the  "Nearest 
Standard  Course."1 

The  Toledo  Plan. 

Toledo,  Ohio,  maintains  a  municipal  University,  one  of  the 
colleges  of  which  is  a  College  of  Education.  The  University,  at 
the  present  writing,  has  no  affiliation  with  the  public  schools  of  the 
city.  There  are,  however,  offered  at  the  University,  in  the  late 
afternoons  and  on  Saturday  mornings,  as  well  as  in  the  summer 
sessions,  courses  designed  especially  for  the  teachers  of  the  city 
and  the  surrounding  districts.  Many  teachers  take  advantage  of 
the  opportunities  thus  offered  and  register  not  only  for  these 
courses,  but  also  for  courses  offered  in  the  other  colleges,  es- 
pecially those  in  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences.  The  Uni- 
versity allows  credit,  the  amount  varying  with  the  individual 
and  based  on  the  character  of  his  preparation  for  teaching,  for 

1Ibid.,pp.  3-7  inc. 


20  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

the  Normal  School  training  of  the  teachers,  and  upon  the  sat- 
isfactory completion  of  its  standard  requirements  grants  a  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Science  of  Elementary  Education. 

2.     COURSES  OUTSIDE  OF  INSTITUTION. 

(l)      BY   COLLEGIATE   INSTRUCTORS. 

(a)     Academic  Type. 

The  Extension  courses  given  to  teachers  in  Atlantic  City 
illustrate  this  type  of  course. 

.  .  .  many  [teachers]  expressed  a  desire  to  do  professional  work  during 
the  present  school  year,  and  accordingly,  classes  were  organized  as  follows : 

Course  No.  I — Fifteen  lectures.  "The  Economic  History  of  the  United 
States."— Prof.  T.  W.  Van  Metre.  [Outline  of  the  course  follows.]  Twenty- 
five  teachers  took  this  course. 

Course  No.  II— Twelve  lectures.  "The  History  of  English  Literature."— 
Prof.  Win.  P.  Harbison.  [Outline  of  the  course  follows.]  Twenty-six  teachers 
took  this  course.  (Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  1916,  p.  20.) 

A  second  type  is  illustrated  in  Jersey  City. 

Last  year,  through  the  interest  of  Dr.  James  E.  Egbert,  Director  of  the 
Extension  Department  of  Columbia  University,  and  formerly  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Education  of  this  city,  a  number  of  University  courses  were  given 
under  the  auspices  of  Columbia  University  in  the  Wm.  L.  Dickenson  High 
School.  Those  [teachers]  who  took  these  courses,  not  only  found  it  easy  to 
engage  in  personal  study  but  if  they  desired  received  appropriate  credit  toward 
academic  degrees.  (Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  1913-14,  p.  74.) 

An  elaboration  of  this  is  reported  from  Indianapolis. 

During  the  year  of  1915-16,  327  teachers  [out  of  a  total  of 
elementary  and  high  school  teachers  of  1197  (See  p.  26  ibid)] 
were  enrolled, 

chiefly  in  courses  given  by  Butler  College  and  Indiana  University.  Classes 
were  organized  in  the  following  subjects:  English  Novel,  Nature  Study, 
Social  Ethics,  Industrial  Relations,  Current  Political  and  Social  Problems, 
Civic  Study  and  Discussion,  the  Voice  in  Education  and  English  Poetry. 
For  the  years  1916-17  some  additions  have  been  made,  particularly  in  Educa- 
tional Measurements,  Preventive  Medicine,  Oral  English,  United  States 
History,  Latin-American  History  and  Social  Service  in  Europe  since  1643. 
(Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1916,  p.  33.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  21 

(b)     Professional  Type. 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  reports  as  follows: 

During  the  first  semester  of  1921-1922,  nineteen  extramural  classes  were 
conducted  by  members  of  the  staff  of  Teachers  College.  Thirteen  different 
subjects  were  included,  and  twenty-six  instructors  took  part,  all  but  two  of 
whom  are  on  regular  assignment  in  Teachers  College  and  seventeen  of  whom 
are  of  professorial  rank.  The  titles  of  the  courses  were  as  follows : 

Elements  of  Psychology  for  Teachers'  Organization  and  Methods  of  Teach- 
ing  in  Lower  Primary 

The  Teaching  of  English  in  the  Grammar  Grades 

Geography  for  Teachers 

Industrial  Arts  for  the  Elementary  Grades 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Teaching  in  the  Elementary  School 

The  Principles  of  Teaching 

The  Supervision  of  Teaching 

The  Project  Method  applied  to  Education 

A  Historical  Study  of  Problems  of  Teaching  Method 

The  Psychology  and  Treatment  of  Exceptional  Children 

Problems  of  the  Curriculum 

Measurement  and  Experimentation  in  Elementary  Education 

The  total  enrollment  of  students  was  1,680.  The  classes  were  conducted 
in  the  following  cities:  Yonkers,  N.  Y. ;  Hackensack,  Perth  Amboy,  Bernards- 
ville  and  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  Philadelphia,  Scranton  and  East  Stroudsburg,  Pa. ; 
Washington,  D.  C.;  Bridgeport,  Stratford,  Danbury  and  Meriden,  Conn.; 
Brockton,  Haverhill  and  Quincy,  Mass. 

The  number  of  classes  in  progress  during  the  second  semester  will  be 
somewhat  smaller  than  that  during  the  first  semester,  but  even  so,  the  resources 
of  the  College  will  be  taxed  to  accommodate  them.  According  to  the  rule  under 
which  extramural  courses  are  being  conducted,  no  instructor  giving  full  time 
to  classes  in  Teachers  College  may  conduct  more  than  one  extramural  course 
in  any  given  year. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  list  of  courses,  those  dealing  with  methods 
of  teaching  are  at  present  most  popular.  One  of  the  most  successful  classes, 
however,  during  the  first  semester  pursued  a  three-point  course  in  Measure- 
ment and  Experimentation  in  Elementary  Education.  A  class  of  more  than 
one  hundred  principals  in  Philadelphia  is  pursuing  the  subject  of  Supervision 
of  Teaching  throughout  the  entire  school  year.1 

(2)      BY   LOCAL   INSTRUCTORS. 

(a)     Professional. 
In  Trenton,  N.  J., 

.  .  .  Dr.  J.  M.  McCallie,  Principal  of  the  Franklin  School  and  Super- 
visor of  Special  Classes,  gave  a  thirty-hour  course  in  Educational  Measurement 

teachers  College  Record,  New  York,  Vol.  XXIII,  No.  2,  March  1922,  p.  187. 


22  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

under  the  auspices  of  New  York  University,  which  was  pursued  by  about  twen- 
ty Trenton  teachers.     (Trenton,  N.  J.,  1918,  p.  39.) 

In  Scranton,  Pa.,  the  report  stated  that, 

.  .  .  the  Superintendent  is  conducting  a  semi-monthly  course  with  the 
principals  of  the  elementary  schools.  Several  colleges  and  universities  have 
offered  to  give  college  or  university  credit  for  the  successful  completion  of  this 
course.  (Scranton,  Pa.,  1915,  p.  10.) 

(II)    NORMAL  SCHOOL  EXTENSION. 

In  addition  to  the  normal  school  extension  of  the  type 
previously  cited  in  St.  Louis,  which  was  there  cited  because  of  the 
closeness  of  the  character  of  the  work  with  that  of  other  institutions 
located  in  cities,  the  two  following  cases  are  illustrative: 

Providence,  R.  I.,  reports: 

The  Normal  School  and  Brown  University  not  only  offer  the  advantages 
of  a  general  education,  but  both  institutions  devote  special  attention  to  the 
principles  and  methods  employed  in  teaching.  [This  with  reference  to 
courses  given  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service.]  (Providence,  R.  I., 
1915-16,  p.  58.) 

The  extension  courses  of  the  Western  State  Normal  School, 
Kalamazoo,  Michigan,  are  open  to, 

a.  High  School  graduates  with  six  or  more  years  of  successful  teaching 
experience  who  wish  to  secure  Extension  Life  Certificates.  .  .  . 

6.  High  School  graduates,  with  or  without  experience,  who  wish  to  earn 
credits  to  apply  on  other  kinds  of  life  certificates  or  on  the  degree. 

c.  High  School  graduates  who  wish  to  take  work  purely  for  personal 
pleasure  and  profit  with  or  without  credit. 

d.  Mature  persons  who  wish  to  pursue  work  for  pleasure  and  profit 
with  or  without  credit.    .    .    . l 

All  instruction  in  Extension  courses  is  given  by  members  of  the  regular 
faculty  of  Western  State  Normal  School.  The  work  takes  two  forms : 

a.  Class  work  at  a  strategic  center  within  range  of  the  school  which  the 
instructor  visits  at  frequent  intervals  (usually  every  other  week).  Most 
classes  meet  on  Saturday. 

6.  Carefully  organized  correspondence  courses.  Students  who  elect  this 
type  of  work  are  directed  in  their  study  through  outlines  and  personal  letters 
from  members  of  the  faculty. 

All  subjects  offered  students  in  extension  work  both  in  class  work  and  by 
correspondence  are  almost  identically  equivalent  to  corresponding  subjects 

Il7th  Annual  Year  Book,  Western  State  Normal  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich.,  1921,  p.  58. 


Present-Day  Agencies  23 

in  residence.     Each  subject  is  planned  to  cover  eighteen  weeks  of  time;  is 
presented  to  students  in  nine  definite  assignments,  and  counts  12   weeks'       */x 
credit  toward  a  life  certificate.    Certain  courses  count  toward  the  degree  of 
A.  B.1 

(III)  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  EXTENSION. 

This  type  partakes  closely  of  the  character  of  the  other  types 
of  extension  that  have  been  described.  The  defining  character- 
istics are  mainly  that  it  is  sponsored  by,  arranged  for,  and  may  be 
supported  wholly  or  in  part,  by  the  board  of  education  of  a  city. 
Two  types  are  here  presented. 

Superintendent  Dyer,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  reports: 

The  various  educational  institutions  in  and  around  Boston  have  offered 
and  are  continuing  to  offer  opportunities  for  individual  students,  but  in  the  last 
six  years  the  necessity  has  been  felt  of  development  of  opportunities  for 
teachers  to  take  improvement  and  cultural  courses  in  easily  accessible  school 
buildings,  either  after  school  hours  or  on  Saturday  mornings.  To  provide  for 
these  courses  we  have  secured  the  cooperation  of  the  Lowell  Institute  Fund 
in  offering  courses  in  school  buildings  by  professors  of  Harvard  and  Wellesley, 
and  we  have  also  drawn  upon  our  own  staff  and  other  institutions  in  the  vicinity 
for  instructors  in  many  departments.  Most  of  these  courses  are  absolutely 
free  to  teachers  and  others  have  a  fee  that  is  merely  nominal.  The  School 
Committee  provides  quarters  and  the  Board  of  Superintendents  recognizes  the 
courses  for  promotional  credit.  [Follows  a  list  of  28  courses  for  1917-18.] 

The  courses  are  all  well  attended.  In  many  cases  the  attendance  is  from 
fifty  to  one  hundred.  Several  of  the  courses  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
Boston  Teachers'  Club.  Three  are  state  aided,  three  are  provided  by  the 
Lowell  Institute  Fund,  one  by  the  special  class  teachers,  and  one  by  the 
teachers  of  children  of  defective  speech.  (Boston,  Mass.,  1917,  p.  15.) 

Another  form  of  this  extension  is  illustrated  in  the  work  done 
in  Lakewood,  Ohio. 

For  several  years  past  we  have  been  most  fortunate  in  the  series  of  ad- 
dresses to  teachers,  distributed  through  the  year,  as  provided  by  state  law,  as 
an  option  instead  of  the  week's  Institute  in  the  fall.  The  past  year  the  high 
standard  was  maintained  in  having  Professor  Henry  Turner  Bailey  deliver  a 
series  of  five  addresses  on  Art.  These  addresses  were  so  practical  in  their 
character  that  they  were  most  helpful  and  inspiring  to  all  teachers  in  their 
work.  (Lakewood,  Ohio,  1918-19,  p.  38.) 

(IV)  STATE  EXTENSION. 

A  form  of  extension  work,  sponsored  by  the  state  is  found  in 
Massachusetts.  Two  illustrations  will  serve  to  characterize  it. 
The  first  is  from  Everett. 

llbid.  p.  58. 


24  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

Each  year  a  considerable  number  of  our  teachers  attend  educational 
classes  in  greater  Boston  conducted  by  private  enterprises.  This  year  the 
State  has  offered  special  opportunities.  Eighteen  attended  lectures  on  teach- 
ing English  to  adult  foreigners,  and  ninety-eight  have  joined  the  three  classes 
that  will  be  conducted  in  Everett  by  the  Department  of  University  Extension. 
Each  gives  ten  lessons  on  the  topic  "How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to 
Study."  (Everett,  Mass.,  1918,  p.  22.) 

The  second  illustration  comes  from  Worcester. 

The  University  Extension  Classes  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State 
Board  of  Education  have  continued  along  the  same  lines  as  those  for  last  year. 
At  present  there  are  two  classes  in  College  English,  and  three  classes  in  Con- 
versational French.  Arrangements  are  completed  for  a  class  in  Italian  and  a 
class  in  Spanish.  The  University  Extension  Classes  are  taken  by  teachers 
who  are  anxious  to  improve  themselves  and  due  credit  is  given  for  all  work 
completed.  (Worcester,  Mass.,  1919,  p.  706,  (34.) ) 

(V)    SUMMER  SCHOOLS. 

1.     KINDS  OF  INSTITUTIONS. 

The  following  are  illustrative  of  the  reports  that  are  made 
relative  to  the  character  of  institutions  which  teachers  are  attend- 
ing. They  are  important  in  view  <if  the  almost  universal  emphasis 
which  is  placed  on  the  value  of  the  work  to  the  teacher,  or  upon 
recognition  of  the  personal  sacrifice  which  the  teachers  have  made 
to  take  the  work. 

(i)     UNIVEKSITY. 
The  following  is  from  Raleigh,  N.  C. : 

The  following  attended  the  summer  session  at  Columbia.  [Follows  seven 
names.]  Miss  .  .  .  and  Miss  .  .  .  attended  Chicago  University.  Quite 
a  number  attended  summer  schools  in  this  state  and  in  other  states.  Most  of 
these  teachers  have  incurred  this  expense  at  a  great  personal  sacrifice.  (Ra- 
leigh, N.  C.,  1915-16,  p.  10.) 

Cleveland  reports  as  follows: 

The  first  term  of  the  Cleveland  School  of  Education  which  was  conducted 
last  summer  by  the  Board  of  Education  and  Western  Reserve  University  at 
the  Normal  School  and  the  University,  was  so  successful  that  there  is  no  hesi- 
tancy on  the  part  of  anyone  concerned  to  predict  a  larger  school  and  better 
session  next  year.  More  than  ten  per  cent  of  the  elementary  teachers  of 
Cleveland  attended.  Among  these  were  many  principals.  It  is  doubtful  if 
any  other  large  city  in  the  country  equals  this  attendance  of  its  teachers  at 
summer  school.  Nor  is  this  all.  Many  other  Cleveland  teachers  attended 


Present-Day  Agencies  25 

summer  sessions  in  more  distant  institutions.     Thirty-seven  attended  Colum- 
bia University  alone.     (Cleveland,  Ohio,  1915-16,  p.  50) 

The  following  is  reported  from  Salt  Lake  City: 

Not  a  few  teachers  use  their  long  vacation  to  take  courses  in  the  summer 
schools  of  the  various  universities  of  the  nation.  (Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  1916? 
p.  139.) 

(2)      COLLEGES. 

Brockton,  Mass.,  reports: 

It  is  with  pride  we  state  that  in  a  teaching  force  of  approximately  350  last 
year  179,  or  more  than  50%,  took  courses  to  improve  themselves  professionally 
Fifty-nine  teachers  pursued  summer  courses  at  college  sand  normal  schools 
at  considerable  expense  to  themselves.  (Brockton,  Mass.,  1919,  p.  23.) 

The  following  is  from  Trenton,  N.  J. : 

A  large  number  of  teachers  also  attended  Summer  Schools  at  Ocean  City> 
Rutgers  College,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Columbia  University.  The 
enthusiasm  shown  by  the  teachers  in  continuing  their  professional  training  is 
most  commendable.  (Trenton,  N.  J.,  1915,  p.  35.) 

(3)      NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

Detroit  reports  as  follows: 

Teachers  in  service  need  training  no  less  than  beginners,  and  through 
evening  classes  for  teachers,  summer  session  connections  with  state  normal 
schools  and  with  the  University,  the  work  of  the  Normal  School  has  been 
broadened  and  widened  until  a  Teachers'  College  was  established  by  the  Board 
of  Education  this  spring.  (Detroit,  Mich.,  1920,  p.  42.) 

Memphis  reports  as  follows : 

September,  1912,  the  West  Tennessee  State  Normal,  located  at  Memphis* 
opened  very  auspiciously.  .  .  .  Fifty  Memphis  teachers  and  aids  are  already 
availing  themselves  of  the  summer  term  of  the  Normal.  (Memphis,  Tenn., 
1912-13,  p.  74.) 

(4)      CITY   OR   COUNTY  TRAINING   SCHOOLS. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  reports  as  follows: 

A  second  important  function  of  the  City  Training  School  should  be  that 
of  providing  a  direct  means  for  the  professional  improvement  of  teachers  in 
service.  Such  work  was  started  during  the  year  1916-17  in  the  provision  of  a 
six  weeks  summer  school  which  was  held  from  June  12th  to  July  21st.  In  all 
there  were  enrolled  for  this  work  three  hundred  white  teachers  and  fifty 


26  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

colored  teachers,  with  an  average  daily  attendance  above  three  hundred  and 
forty.     Twenty-three  courses  were  offered.     (Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1917,  p.  70.) 

The  following  comes  from  Richmond,  Va. : 

A  summer  school  for  teachers  was  also  conducted  in  this  city.  This  was 
the  fourth  session  of  the  Richmond  City  Normal  School  summer  session.  The 
total  number  of  teachers  registered  was  243  of  whom  77  were  from  Richmond. 
(Richmond,  Va.,  (1)  1917,  p.  17.) 

2.    RECOGNITION  or  SUMMER  SCHOOL  WORK. 

(1)  BONUS. 

The  bonus  is  a  sum  of  money  given  to  a  teacher  for  having 
attended  a  summer  school.  It  is  given  for  the  year  only  in  which 
the  work  is  taken,  and  after  the  work  has  been  satisfactorily  com- 
pleted. The  two  types  of  bonus  in  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  and  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  are  illustrative. 

Auburn,  N.  Y.,  reports: 

The  provision  in  the  rules  adopted  by  the  Board  in  March,  1918,  granting 
a  bonus  of  $50  to  every  teacher  who  should  pursue  a  course  of  professional 
study  satisfactory  to  the  Superintendent,  is  beginning  to  bear  abundant  fruit. 
During  the  summer  of  1918  only  one  teacher  availed  herself  of  the  opportunity 
offered.  During  the  summer  of  1919,  however,  twenty-six  teachers  attended 
summer  schools  .  .  .  (Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1918-19,  p.  23.) 

The  rules  in  Rochester  are  as  follows: 

Upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Superintendent  and  the  approval  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  the  following  recognition  is  given  to  all  regularly  ap- 
pointed teachers,  principals,  and  supervisors  who  pursue  courses  in  summer 
schools. 

First.  For  the  single  year  following  such  work  the  sum  of  $50  is  added  to 
the  salary  of  any  teacher,  principal  or  supervisor  who  pursues  courses  in  insti- 
tutions outside  of  the  City  of  Rochester. 

Second.  For  the  single  year  following  such  work  a  sum  equal  to  the 
tuition  but  in  [no]  case  to  exceed  $25  is  added  to  the  salary  of  any  teacher, 
principal  or  supervisor  who  pursues  courses  in  an  institution  within  the  city. 

The  institution  and  the  courses  therein  are  to  be  approved  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Schools.  Adopted  June  30,  1913. l 

(2)  SCHOLARSHIP   OR   SUBSIDY. 

These  are  sums  of  money  given  to  teachers  under  varying 
conditions  to  enable  them  to  take  work  in  summer  sessions. 

Bulletin  of  General  Information,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  November  1915,  p.  36. 


Present-Day  Agencies  27 

(a)     The  Indianapolis  Plan. 

The  public-school  system  of  Indianapolis  has  a  scholarship  fund,  whose 
income  is  devoted  to  advanced  professional  training  of  a  limited  number  of 
teachers  each  year.  The  conditions  under  which  the  scholarships  are  con- 
ferred are  as  follows: 

Only  teachers  who  have  had  at  least  three  years  of  successful  experience 
in  the  public  schools  of  Indianapolis  are  entitled  to  such  scholarships,  and  no 
person  is  entitled  to  more  than  one  in  any  one  year  nor  more  than  two  in  suc- 
cessive years. 

Teachers  who  receive  and  accept  the  Gregg  Scholarships  enter  into  a  con- 
tract provided  by  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners  in  order  that  Indianap- 
olis public  schools  may  receive  the  benefit  of  the  special  training  given. 
Beneficiaries  must  return  to  Indianapolis  and  teach  in  the  public  schools  for 
a  specified  number  of  years  agreed  upon  (from  one  to  five  years  in  proportion 
to  the  size  of  the  scholarship).  They  are  not  entitled  to  any  advantage  as  to 
position  or  salary,  but  are  in  all  things  subject  to  the  rules  of  the  board  for 
their  appointments  and  salaries  when  they  return. 

The  first  scholarships  were  granted  in  1894.  Since  that  time  about  200 
have  been  given.  The  sums  have  varied  from  $25  to  $1,000.  They  range 
from  a  three  or  six  weeks'  summer  term  in  a  university  or  school  of  education 
to  five  months  during  the  regular  school  year.  Three  teachers  have  each  been 
given  a  year's  scholarship 

The  Gregg  Fund  is  the  outcome  of  Iowa  lands  bequeathed  to  the  school 
city  of  Indianapolis  by  a  pioneer  teacher,  Mr.  Thomas  D.  Gregg,  who  died  in 
1876. 


The  net  returns  of  this  bequest  were  $12,850  .  .  .  The  plan  has 
worked  admirably  and  great  good  has  come  to  the  schools  by  virtue  of  this 
modest  bequest  which  has  now  accumulated  to  a  sum  of  $37,500.  Eight  or 
ten  teachers  are  annually  benefited  by  the  interest  from  this  fund.  l 

(b)  The  Toledo  Plan. 

A  number  of  scholarships  given  by  a  private  donor  and  known 
as  the  Libby  Scholarships  are  awarded  yearly  in  Toledo,  Ohio,  to 
fifteen  teachers  in  the  city  schools  for  the  purpose  of  summer  study 
at  colleges  or  universities.  The  amount  of  each  scholarship  is  $150. 

(c)  The  Pittsburgh  Plan. 
Pittsburgh  has  a  fund  of  $250,000,  donated  by  Henry  Clay 

Frick,  the  income  from  which  is  used  for  the  improvement  of  the 
work  of  the  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  Pittsburgh.  The 
yearly  income  amounts  to  $12,500. 


L.  R.,  The  Gregg  Scholarships  of  the  Indianapolis  Public  Schools,  The  Elementary 
School  Teacher,  Vol.  12,  1912,  pp.  460-462. 


28  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

This  has  been  expended  by  the  Commission,  [appointed  to  handle  the  fund] 
in  the  purchase  of  summer  school  scholarships  in  the  leading  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  country.  In  June  of  each  year,  it  has  been  the  custom  of  the 
Commission  to  award  these  scholarships  to  the  teachers  elected  to  receive  them. 
Each  scholarship  has  carried  with  it  an  amount  sufficient  to  pay  the  tuition  of 
the  teacher,  and  at  the  same  time,  to  meet,  in  whole  or  in  part,  all  the  expenses 
connected  with  her  summer  school  attendance.  (Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1916,  p.  23.) 

(3)      CREDIT   TOWARD   SALARY   INCREASE. 

Wichita,  Kansas,  reports: 

.  .  .  the  Board  of  Education  in  May  offered  to  raise  five  dollars  per 
month  the  salary  of  every  teacher  who  would  accomplish  three  semester  hours 
of  work  in  an  accredited  summer  school.  As  a  result  of  this  resolution  and  the 
general  desire  for  professional  improvement  there  are  now  in  scattered  summer 
schools  about  seventy-five  or  eighty  teachers — over  one-fourth  of  the  teaching 
force.  (Wichita,  Kan.,  1912-13,  p.  23.) 

In  this  connection  see  also,  in  a  later  section  (pp.  50-53)  the 
salary  schedules  of  Beverly,  Mass.,  and  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

The  Elementary  School  Journal  reports  a  recent  study  in  this 
connection  as  follows: 

The  Grade  Teachers'  Association  of  Minneapolis  has  published  a  pamphlet 
written  by  Miss  Clara  Langwick  and  entitled  "The  Growth  of  Teachers  in 
Service."  This  pamphlet  publishes  the  results  of  an  inquiry  addressed  to  the 
State  Department  of  Education  and  to  three  hundred  city-school  systems. 
The  questions  asked  are  as  follows: 

Does  your  city  pay  expenses  of  teachers  while  attending  summer 
school? 

What  amount  is  allowed  each? 
Is  it  given  as  a  bonus? 
As  a  raise  in  salary? 
How  much  do  you  allow  for  travel? 

How  many  teachers  attended  school  during  the  summer  of  1918, 
1919,  1920? 

How  many  teachers  do  you  employ? 

Do  you  provide  a  sabbatical  vacation  for  your  teachers  on  full  pay? 
Half?     Part? 

There  were  eight  states  which  made  an  affirmative  report.  The  details 
of  their  statements  are  as  follows: 

Delaware — SI 00  is  granted  as  a  bonus. 
Maryland — $25  is  granted  as  a  bonus. 

New  Mexico — Cost  of  transportation  to  the  school  and  return  is  paid. 
Connecticut — Books,  supplies  and  instruction  are  provided  free  of 
cost. 


Present-Day  Agencies  29 

Rhode  Island — The  state  conducts  a  summer  school  and  offers  free 
tuition.  Mileage  is  paid  for  normal  school  students  in  regular  courses. 

Maine — Expenses  are  paid  in  the  case  of  one  group  for  special  teacher- 
training  work. 

North  Carolina — If  credits  are  earned,  the  teachers  receive  a  raise 
in  salary. 

Montana — Each  county  pays  the  tuition.  State  refunds  to  the 
county  all  above  $50  per  teacher. 

In  Colorado,  Baca  County  pays  its  teachers  a  bonus  for  attendance 
at  the  normal  institute. 

Of  the  300  school  systems  addressed,  203  replied.     In  131  no  rewards  are 
offered  to  teachers.    From  72  an  affirmative  reply  was  received.    ... 
The  author's  general  conclusion  is  as  follows: 

"From  the  above  facts  it  is  reasonably  fair  to  assume  that  approxi- 
mately one-third  of  the  cities  in  the  United  States  offer  some  reward  to 
teachers  who  are  willing  to  make  a  real  effort  to  enlarge  their  professional 
equipment  by  study  or  travel  or  the  equivalent  of  these.  The  cities  that 
are  doing  something  in  this  line  belong  to  no  particular  population  group 
and  to  no  one  part  of  the  country,  all  parts  of  the  country  and  cities  of  all 
sizes  being  represented.  .  .  . 

"In  most  cases  the  reward  is  in  addition  to  all  other  remuneration, 
though  in  some  cases  it  is  only  the  normal  salary  increase  and  refused  to 
all  who  do  not  meet  certain  conditions.  In  other  words,  the  plan  seems 
to  be  to  penalize  those  who  do  not  show  progress  rather  than  to  reward 
those  who  do  show  progress."1 

(VI)  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION  EXTENSION. 
Stamford,  Connecticut  reports  as  follows: 

The  Stamford  Teachers'  Association  Extension  Courses  for  Teachers. 
The  Stamford  Teachers'  Association  continued  its  custom  of  providing  for 
extension  courses,  and  the  following  were  given  here  last  winter.  [Follows  a 
list  of  the  courses.]  (Stamford,  Conn.,  1917,  p.  16.) 

Brookline,  Massachusetts  reports  as  follows: 

Early  in  the  year  the  Teachers'  Club  engaged  Dr.  S.  S.  Colvin  to  deliver  a 
series  of  lectures  on  Group  Intelligence  Tests.  (Brookline,  Mass.,  1920,  p.  390.) 

(VII)  CORRESPONDENCE  EXTENSION. 

In  addition  to  the  mention  of  correspondence  courses  in  con- 
nection with  the  Western  State  Normal  School  at  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  the  following  reference  is  illustrative.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  correspondence  extension  is  far  more  important  with  teachers 

1 The  Elementary  SchoolJournal,  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111.,  Vol.  XXII,  No.  7,  March, 
1922,  pp.  483-485. 


30  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

outside  of  these  larger  cities  consulted,  than  it  is  here  reported  in 
them.  The  following  is  typical  of  the  casual  form  of  report. 

For  several  years  many  of  our  teachers,  even  without  prospects  of  im- 
mediate financial  return,  have  been  taking  extension  courses,  both  in  residence 
and  by  correspondence.  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1920,  p.  19.) 

(VIII)  STUDY  GROUPS. 

Wheeling,  West  Virginia,  reports  that  some  of  its  teachers  are 
enrolled  in  private  classes  which  have  set  for  themselves  the  study  of  some 
special  subject  in  language,  literature  or  art.  (Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  1908, 
pp.  28-29.) 

(IX)  SPECIAL  SUBJECT  INSTRUCTION. 

1.    NEW  YORK  CITY  PLAN. 
Superintendent  Maxwell  proposed  in  1914, 

that  a  few  teachers  each  term  be  selected  in  these  special  subjects,  [singing, 
drawing,  sewing,  physical  training,  etc.]  relieved  from  teaching  one  day  a 
week,  and  sent  on  that  day  to  the  training  schools,  where  they  may  receive 
special  instruction  in  the  department  of  theory  and  special  practice  in  the 
model  school.  During  their  absence  from  their  own  schools  their  places  may 
be  taken  for  the  day  by  pupil  teachers  assigned  to  practice  work  by  the  train- 
ing schools,  so  that  no  appropriation  will  be  required  to  pay  substitutes  while 
they  are  away.  Already  a  beginning  has  been  made  by  assigning  ten  teachers 
in  drawing  and  ten  teachers  in  physical  training  to  each  of  the  three  training 
schools.  As  these  teachers  receive  their  modicum  of  training  they  will  go  back 
to  their  schools  able  to  do  departmental  work  in  their  specialties.  In  such 
schools  the  services  of  the  special  supervisory  teachers  will  no  longer  be  needed 
and  they  may  be  gradually  assigned  to  departmental  work  in  the  large  schools. 
In  this  way,  I  believe,  our  training  schools  will  add  very  largely  to  the  efficiency 
of  the  teaching  force,  and  will  at  the  same  time,  materially  reduce  the  expense 
of  administering  the  schools.  (New  York  City,  N.  Y.,  (2)  1914,  p.  132.) 

The  success  of  this  plan  is  reported  the  following  year : 

The  Training  Schools  for  Teachers  continue  to  render  the  excellent  service 
they  have  always  rendered.  Last  year  they  made  a  long  stride  in  this  work  by 
giving  a  special  training  to  class  teachers  in  music,  drawing,  and  physical 
training.  This  work  was  commenced  some  years  ago  by  the  Brooklyn  Training 
School  in  giving  special  training  to  groups  of  teachers  of  mentally  deficient 
children.  This  work  proved  so  satisfactory  that  it  has  since  been  extended  to 
class  teachers  in  the  subjects  mentioned  above.  The  Training  School  for 
Teachers  may  easily  be  made  our  most  efficient  means  of  improving  the  work 
of  the  regularly  appointed  teachers.  (New  York  City,  N.  Y.,  1915,  p.  100.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  31 

2.  RALEIGH,  N.  C.,  PLAN. 

This  plan  of  improvement  has  a  commercial  aspect. 

I  am  glad  to  commend  the  spirit  of  the  teachers  in  the  Raleigh  Schools. 
Thirty-seven  of  them  have  obtained  a  special  certificate  of  penmanship  from 
the  A.  N.  Palmer  Company.  To  merit  this  certificate  requires  one  year  of 
practice  in  the  various  drills  in  the  method  which  we  teach  to  the  children. 
At  the  close  of  the  present  year,  we  hope  to  be  able  to  report  that  practically 
all  of  the  teachers  are  proficient  in  penmanship.  (Raleigh,  N.  C.,  1915-16, 
p.  10.) 

3.  COLUMBIA,  S.  C.,  PLAN. 

Vocal  music  has  been  taught  in  the  schools  for  many  years,  and  although 
one  teacher  of  music  has  done  all  the  work  in  this  department,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  assistance  from  a  few  teachers,  the  singing  of  the  children 
under  her  direct  instruction  in  the  class-room  and  in  choruses  trained  by  her 
for  special  occasions,  shows  that  they  have  received  careful  instruction.  Their 
singing  is  pleasing  and  inspiring. 

Doubtless  one  teacher  could  have  continued  to  give  personal  instruction 
to  all  the  pupils  in  the  schools  for  some  years  to  come  and  could  have  secured 
good  results,  but  the  annexation  of  adjoining  territory  so  largely  increased  the 
work  of  this  department  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  one  person  to  teach  each 
class-room  with  sufficient  frequency  to  insure  satisfactory  progress  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils. 

In  order  to  relieve  the  situation,  the  School  Board  provided  afternoon 
music  classes  for  the  teachers,  which  were  taught  by  the  regular  music  teacher. 
The  teachers  below  the  High  School  were  divided  into  two  groups,  one  com- 
posed of  teachers  of  the  Primary  grades  and  the  other  of  teachers  of  the  Inter- 
mediate grades.  Each  group  met  twice  a  month  and  was  in  session  for  one 
hour.  Attendance  was  optional  but  I  am  glad  to  report  that,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, all  the  teachers  joined  these  classes  and  made  much  progress  with 
their  music.  Within  a  few  years,  under  the  present  plan,  there  seems  to  be 
no  good  reason  why  all  the  teachers  below  the  High  School  should  not  be 
capable  of  teaching  music  to  pupils.  As  ability  to  teach  vocal  music  is  now 
required  of  all  teachers  in  the  Elementary  schools,  a  teacher  who  does  not 
attend  these  classes,  unless  excused  for  sufficient  reason  is  losing  an  oppor- 
tunity to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  School  Board.  (Columbia, 
S.  C.,  1913-14,  p.  32.) 

(X)  CHAUTAUQUA. 

Beyond  casual  mention  in  a  few  cases,  that  a  teacher  or  two 
was  attending  or  had  attended  a  Chautauqua  meeting,  this  agency 
does  not  seem  to  play  any  important  part  among  present-day 
agencies. 


32  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(XI)    VACATION  SCHOOL. 

Memphis,  Tennessee,  mentions  a  " vacation  school"  as  a  re- 
quirement that  ought  to  be  made  for  weaker  teachers  in  an  effort 
to  bring  them  up  to  standard.  (Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12,  p.  44.) 

II.    TEACHERS'  MEETINGS. 

(I)  GENERAL  PURPOSES. 

1.  To  develop  teachers  to  greater  efficiency.     (Moline,  111.,  1916,  p  .29.) 

2.  To  help  each  teacher  to  render  the  highest  type  of  teaching  service 
of  which  she  is  capable.     (Duluth,  Minn.,  1918,  p.  3.) 

3.  To  help  her  [the  teacher]  succeed.     (Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1915-16,  p.  20.) 

4.  To  keep  instruction  efficient.     (Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1917,  p.  12.) 

5.  To  facilitate  the  basic  adjustment  to  each  other  of  the  entire  teaching 
corps  and  the  supervisory  staff.  (Topeka,  Kan.,  1914-15,  p.  11.) 

6.  .    .    .  inspirational  to  the  teachers  as  well  as  helpful  to  the  school 
system  in  bringing  together  the  various  elements  of  the  organization  for  a 
better  acquaintance  and  understanding  of  their  relations  to  one  another. 
(Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910-11,  p.  19.) 

(II)  TYPES  OF  MEETINGS. 

1.  GENERAL  PROFESSIONAL  MEETINGS  OF  TEACHERS. 
These  are  meetings  in  which  all  of  the  teachers  within  a 
school    system  are  called  to   meet   together    for    some    specific 
purposes. 

(l)      TYPES. 

(a)  Attendance  may  be  compulsory,  as 
in  Canton,  Ohio. 

They  [the  teachers]  shall  attend  all  regular  and  special  meetings  called 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction,  the  Principals  or  Supervisors,  and  no 
excuse  for  absence  shall  be  allowed  other  than  such  as  would  justify  absence 
from  a  regular  session  of  their  schools.  (Canton,  O.,  (2)  1911-12,  p.  61.) 

(6)     Attendance  may  be  voluntary   as 

follows: 

Attendance  was  not  compulsory,  but  was  rarely  less  than  one  hundred 
per  cent  of  the  teachers  employed.  (Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910-11,  p.  19.) 

(c)  The  meetings  may  be  regular  as  im- 
plied above,  in  Canton,  Ohio,  or 
as  follows: 

During  the  year  general  teachers'  meetings  were  held  at  the  Powhatan 
School  on  the  third  Thursday  in  each  month.  (Richmond,  Va.,  1915,  p.  77.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  33 

(d)     The  meetings  may  be  special,  as 
reported  in  Chester,  Pa. 

Special  meetings  of  the  teachers  for  consultation  or  instruction  may  be 
called  by  the  Superintendent  at  any  time.  (Chester,  Pa.,  1910-11,  p.  36.) 

(2)  THESE    GENERAL     MEETINGS   MAY    BE    IN 

CHARGE    OF    VARIOUS    INDIVIDUALS    OR 

GROUPS.  The  following  are  illustrative : 
(a)     Superintendent  or  Supervisors. 

The  presentation  of  lessons  planned  under  the  direction  of  the  superin- 
tendent and  the  discussion  of  the  principles  involved,  and  the  methods  em- 
ployed have  proved  a  most  valuable  and  interesting  feature  of  the  meetings. 
(Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1915-16,  p.  22.) 

(6)    Special  Committees  of  Teachers. 
The  following  is  reported  from  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin: 

The  plan  for  general  teachers'  meetings  for  the  year  was  somewhat 
changed.  General  teachers'  meetings  may  be  of  two  kinds:  first,  those  in 
which  details  of  administration  and  general  policies  of  the  school  system  are 
to  be  presented  to  teachers;  and,  second,  those  which  are  entirely  of  an  educa- 
tional nature.  Believing  again  that  the  best  results  would  be  obtained  from  a 
democratic  plan  of  organization,  the  superintendent  appointed  a  committee 
of  about  five  principals  and  teachers  to  plan  the  program  for  each  meeting 
throughout  the  year.  Each  committee  accepted  its  responsibility,  and  the 
result  was  a  series  of  A  No.  1  meetings  with  sufficient  variety  to  interest  the 
most  fastidious.  We  hope  to  enlarge  upon  the  plan  the  coming  year.  (La 
Crosse,  Wis.,  1918,  p.  23.) 

The  following  report  from  Sheboygan  is  illuminating  in  this 
connection : 

The  purpose  of  putting  committees  in  charge  of  these  programs  is  not  to 
relieve  the  superintendent  of  work  and  responsibility  but  to  give  a  wider  scope 
and  a  broader  viewpoint  to  the  subjects  taken  for  discussion.  The  committees 
may  practice  the  usual  latitude  in  selecting  subjects.  (Sheboygan,  Wis., 
1913-14,  pp.  15-16.) 

(3)  ACTIVITIES  OF  THESE  MEETINGS. 

(a)     Discussion  of  school  subjects. 
There  were 

two  general  meetings  of  all  white  teachers,  in  two  separate  divisions,  dur- 
ing the  year  for  the  discussion  of  arithmetic,  geography  and  reading.  (Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  1911-12,  p.  36.) 


34  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(b)  Special  and  general  topics. 

The  basis  for  study  and  discussions  in  the  general  meetings  was  Gilbert's 
"The  School  and  its  Life."  Outlines  of  the  portions  of  the  text  assigned  for 
each  meeting,  giving  special  and  general  topics  for  discussion,  were  prepared  by 
the  Superintendent  and  handed  out  in  advance  to  the  teachers.  This  assured  a 
systematic  and  careful  consideration  of  the  points  under  discussion  and  re- 
sulted in  much  thoughtful  investigation.  General  subjects  of  local  interest 
were  also  included  in  the  programs.  (Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910-11,  p.  19.) 

(c)  Outside  Speakers. 

At  the  general  meetings  of  the  teachers  of  the  city,  addresses  were  given 
as  follows : 

"The  Newer  Idea  of  Culture,"  by  the  Superintendent. 

"The  Junior  High  School,"  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Briggs. 

"The  Complete  School,"  Dr.  H.  H.  Home. 

"The  Use  of  the  Examination,"  Mr.  H.  H.  Horner. 

"The  Work  of  the  Year,"  by  the  Superintendent.  (Mt.  Vernon, 
N.  Y.,  1916,  p.  18.) 

(d)  Local  Speakers. 

"Virginia's  Attitude  Towards  Slavery  and  Secession,"  one  of  the  books 
of  the  reading  course  for  Virginia  teachers,  was  presented  in  a  series  of  lectures 
by  Mr.  J.  T.  Walker,  Principal  of  Buchanan  School.  Miss  Sarah  C.  Brooks 
lectured  on  "Language  Teaching  in  the  Grades."  Spelling,  seat  work  sugges- 
tions for  the  3A — 7B  grades,  inclusive,  teaching  current  events,  phonics,  lan- 
guage and  reading  were  discussed.  Group  teaching  and  instruction  received 
ample  share  of  these  deliberations.  Mimeographed  suggestions  were  given 
the  teachers  and  a  summary  of  the  work  of  each  meeting  was  put  into  their 
hands  in  this  form.  (Richmond,  Va.,  1915,  p.  77.) 

(e)  Book  Study. 

The  following  is  illustrative  from  Manchester,  N.  H.: 

In  our  teachers'  meetings  we  have  endeavored  to  consider  such  books  as 
would  help  us  to  bring  into  practice  the  more  recent  notions  of  school  room 
procedure.  (Manchester,  N.  H.,  1919-20,  p.  13.) 

Cranston,  R.  I.,  reports  the  following: 

At  the  general  meetings,  Dr.  Frank  M.  McMurry's  book  on  "Elementary 
School  Standards,"  was  the  basis  of  our  discussions.  (Cranston,  R.  I.,  1914, 
p.  9.) 

2.    GRADE  MEETINGS. 

These  consist  of  meetings  of  the  teachers  within  a  city  in 
groups,  according  to  the  grades  which  they  teach.  These  meetings, 


Present-Day  Agencies  35 

like  those  above,  may  be  either  regular  or  special,  are  usually  held 
by  the  supervisors,  and  no  mention  is  made  as  to  whether  or  not 
they  are  compulsory. 

(l)      ACTIVITIES  OF  THESE  MEETINGS. 

(a)  Plans  for  Future  Work. 
The  two  following  citations  are  illustrative  of  this : 

Frequent  grade  meetings  were  also  held  by  the  superintendent  and  super- 
visors. Specific  plans  for  special  work -were  considered  at  these  meetings. 
(Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910-11,  p.  19  ff.) 

Grade  meetings  are  held  once  each  month  for  consultation  and  for  map- 
ping and  planning  the  work  for  the  next  month.  (Austin,  Tex.,  1907,  p.  36.) 

(b)  Outside  Speakers. 

During  the  year  the  different  grade  organizations  held  bi-monthly  meetings. 
In  addition  to  discussions  by  the  teachers  of  matters  pertaining  to  the  regular 
work  of  the  grades,  at  several  of  the  meetings  addresses  and  talks  were  given 
by  speakers  from  outside  the  school  system.  (Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1916,  p.  18.) 

(c)  Discussions  of  Methods. 

There  were  five  meetings  this  year.  Two  of  these  reviewed  the  past 
year's  meetings  and  there  were  three  on  the  "Teaching  of  Reading  in  the 
Primary  Grades."  (Waterbury,  Conn.,  1918,  p.  45.) 

At  these  meetings,  instruction  has  been  given  in  methods  and  discipline* 
in  matters  relating  to  the  course  of  study,  in  standard  test  work,  and  in  all  the 
important  phases  of  the  work  of  teaching.  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1920,  p.  26.) 

Monthly  grade  meetings  are  held  for  the  presentation  and  discussion  of 
devices  and  methods.  (Reading,  Pa.,  1910-11,  p.  22.) 

Last  year,  as  in  previous  years,  I  met  the  teachers  each  month  and  either 
discussed  problems  with  them  or  gave  demonstration  lessons  according  to  their 
wishes. 

These  grade  meetings  have  proven  to  be  the  most  effective  means  of  im- 
proving the  teachers  in  the  force.  Through  them,  common  purposes  and  ideals 
are  set  up,  different  aspects  of  the  course  of  study  are  considered,  and  a  definite 
method  of  teaching  demonstrated.  The  teachers  enter  heartily  into  the  meet- 
ings, taking  part  in  the  discussions,  asking  pointed  questions,  taking  notes  and 
experimenting,  at  some  later  time,  in  their  own  class-rooms.  Often,  the 
teacher  who  acts  as  hostess  teaches  the  lesson.  Thus,  the  meetings  contrib- 
ute to  the  development  of  the  teachers'  individuality,  by  stimulating  them  to 
think  and  by  giving  them  confidence  in  their  teaching  ability. 

During  the  year,  the  first  grade  teachers  considered  the  following  topics : 
(1)  Nature  Study;  (2)  Beginning  Number;  (3)  Industrial  Education;  (4) 
Phonics;  (5)  Language;  and  (6)  Number.  The  second  grade  teachers  con- 


36  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

sidered  the  following  topics:     (1)  Nature  Study;  (2)  Industrial  Education; 
(3)  Language;  (4)  Phonics.     (Richmond,  Va.,  (2)  1917,  p.  95.) 

(d)  Demonstration  Lessons. 

In  addition  to  the  mention  of  demonstration  lessons  made 
above  a  further  type  is  illustrated  in  Cleveland. 

.  .  .  here  and  there  was  found  a  teacher  who  was  doing  such  splendid 
work  that  it  was  arranged  to  have  what  were  called  demonstration  lessons. 
All  the  teachers  of  a  particular  grade  would  come  together  and  witness  lessons 
that  would  illustrate  how  our  standards  for  class-room  work  were  being  carried 
out.  (Cleveland,  Ohio,  (2)  1914-15,  p.  21.) 

(e)  Special  Type. 

An  interesting  variation  is  reported  from  Wichita,  Kan. : 

In  addition  to  college  and  normal  school  courses  the  local  teachers'  asso- 
ciation has  provided  a  round-table  for  the  teachers  of  each  grade  in  the  ele- 
mentary school.  These  teachers  have  their  meetings  immediately  after  their 
regular  grade  meetings  with  the  superintendent.  Vital  points  in  the  course  of 
study  are  discussed  and  plans  are  suggested  for  getting  the  best  results  in  the 
class-room.  Such  meetings  have  proved  of  great  value  to  all.  (Wichita,  Kan., 
1913-14,  p.  26.) 

3.    BUILDING  MEETINGS. 

These  are  usually  held  regularly  by  the  principal  of  a  school 
building  for  his  own  teachers.  There  are  two  aspects;  first,  the 
consideration  of  building  routine;  and,  secondly,  the  discussion  of 
professional  subjects. 

(1)  BUILDING  ROUTINE. 

The  principals  of  the  different  buildings  have  frequent  conferences  with 
teachers  to  discuss  matters  of  importance  to  their  own  schools.  (Austin,  Tex., 
1907,  p.  36.) 

The  principals  of  the  various  buildings  held  almost  weekly  meetings  of 
their  teachers  at  which  the  special  problems  of  administration  and  discipline 
affecting  the  respective  buildings  were  considered.  (Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910- 
11,  p.  20.) 

(2)  PROFESSIONAL  PURPOSES. 

(a)     Discussion. 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  reports: 

All  of  the  schools  maintain  teachers'  meetings;  one  meeting  a  month  is 
the  usual  practice,  but  several  schools  have  held  two  meetings  a  month  during 
the  past  year.  In  schools  having  many  part  time  classes,  meetings  had  to  be 


Present-Day  Agencies  37 

held  for  the  second  group  of  teachers.  In  about  two-thirds  of  the  schools  the 
meetings  were  occupied  with  the  discussion  of  matters  pertaining  to  the  re- 
spective schools,  but  the  remaining  schools  report  very  interesting  and  profit- 
able programs  used  in  round-table  discussions.  (Trenton,  N.  J.,  1916,  p.  16.) 

(6)     Professional  Reading. 

The  character  of  the  reading  done  is  somewhat  illustrated  in 
the  citations  given  below,  although  in  just  what  the  reading  con- 
sisted has  not  been  given. 

All  the  teachers  in  the  service  are  now  pursuing  systematically  some  course 
in  professional  study  and  reading,  from  the  high  schools  down  through  the 
kindergarten.  The  meetings  in  the  two  high  schools  and  in  the  elementary 
schools  are  conducted  in  each  case  by  the  principals,  and  in  the  kindergarten 
by  the  Supervisor  of  Kindergartens.  (Scranton,  Pa.,  1915,  p.  10.) 

Another  type  is  illustrated  in  Harrisburg,  Pa. : 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  practically  all  teachers  in  the 
elementary  grades  who  did  not  identify  themselves  with  the  lecture  course, 
held  meetings  in  their  respective  buildings  and  engaged  in  some  kind  of  pro- 
fessional reading  and  study.  Twenty-eight  meetings  were  held  in  the  Foose 
Building,  eighteen  in  Willard,  seven  in  Harris,  six  in  MacLay,  and  weekly 
classes  were  scheduled  in  Boas  and  Fager.  Reports  from  these  schools  indi- 
cate regularity  of  attendance  and  commendable  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
teachers  concerned.  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1916,  p.  17.) 

(c)     Special  Topics. 

The  following  report  from  Denver,  Colo.,  contains  many  of 
the  features  given  above,  and  in  addition  discusses  at  some  length, 
which  is  only  partially  quoted  here,  the  advantages  which  the 
meetings  bring. 

There  were  meetings  during  the  entire  year  in  the  Columbian 
School.  Twelve  to  fourteen  concerned  building  routine,  and  about 
twenty  discussed  the  following: 

1.  Class-room  Management. 

2.  Physical  Examinations. 

3.  Program  Making. 

4.  Marking  Systems. 

5.  Art  of  Questioning. 

6.  Parallel  Classes  vs.  the  Coaching  System. 

7.  Socialized  Recitation. 

8.  Problem  and  Project  Methods. 

9.  Supervised  Study. 

10.    Educational  Measurements. 


38  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

11.  Language  Games  and  Oral  English. 

12.  Professional  Ethics. 

13.  Influence  of  War  on  Education. 

The  good  results  were  tabulated  as  follows : 

1.  The  sagacious  and  more  experienced  teachers  explained  their 

methods  that  the  young,  cranky  and  unwise  ones  might  be 
benefited. 

2.  Visitors  came  to  meetings  and  gave  exchange  of  ideas. 

3.  Specialists  became  interested  in  all  the  work  of  the  school. 

4.  Professional  ideals  were  stimulated. 

5.  Teachers'  outlook  was  enlarged. 

6.  Meetings   placed   a   premium   on    initiative    and    originality. 

(Denver,  Colo.,  (1)  1918-19,  p.  124  ff.) 

4.  DEPARTMENTAL  OR  GROUP  MEETINGS. 

These  are  held  as  a  rule  by  the  supervisors  or  by  the  superin- 
tendent for  the  discussion  of  subjects  touching  the  interests  of 
several  grades.  The  following  citations  serve  to  characterize  them : 

Our  grade  meetings,  departmental  meetings,  special  meetings  in  such 
subjects  as  music,  penmanship  and  drawing  are  held  each  month  and  are  of 
marked  value  in  the  supervision  of  schools  and  particularly  in  the  training  of 
the  younger  teachers.  (Houston,  Tex.,  1915-16,  pp.  29-30.) 

On  Thursday  afternoon,  December  8,  the  teachers  of  grades  1,  2  and  3 
were  addressed  by  Miss  Bessie  Coleman  of  New  York  City,  an  expert  in  the 
teaching  of  reading.  (Central  Falls,  R.  I.,  1921,  p.  36.) 

Departmental  meetings  in  which  special  subjects  touching  the  work  in 
several  grades  were  selected  and  discussed  and  numerous  conferences  in  the 
office  of  the  Superintendent  with  individuals  and  groups  of  teachers  were  held. 
(Muskogee,  Okla.,  1910-11,  p.  20.) 

5.  PRINCIPALS'  MEETINGS. 

These  are  meetings  of  the  principals  of  a  city,  either  at  regular 
intervals  or  at  special  times,  as  a  rule  with  the  superintendent. 
They  may  be  either  for  the  discussion  of  routine  matters  or  for  pur- 
poses of  improvement.  The  following  citations  are  illustrative : 

Topeka,  Kansas,  reports; 

There  are  two  kinds: 

(1)  Routine  Matters. 

(2)  A  few  meetings  were  held  each  year  for  the  specific  purpose  of 
promoting  advanced  professional  study.     (Topeka,  Kan.,  1914-15,  p.  11.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  39 

Utica,  New  York,  uses  the  meetings  for  special  subject  in- 
struction. 

One  year  ago,  beside  the  regular  monthly  meetings  of  Principals  with  the 
Superintendent,  we  held  several  extra  meetings  on  the  subject  of  Reading. 
These  were  such  a  marked  success,  that  the  past  year  we  have  had  a  series  of 
meetings  on  English.  The  Superintendent  appointed  Principals  F.  W.  Trieble, 
Mary  L.  McKernan  and  Julia  J.  Winchenbach  as  a  committee  in  charge. 
(Utica,  N.  Y.,  1914-15,  p.  31.) 

In  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  the  supervisors  cooperate  with  the  super- 
intendent. 

Principals'  meetings  have  been  held  twice  a  month,  the  Superintendent 
and  the  Supervisor  of  Advanced  Grades  alternating  in  directing  these  meetings. 
(Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1920,  p.  26.) 

In  Dallas,  Texas,  the  meetings  are  used  for  special  study. 

Each  principal  has  purchased  and  read  with  the  Superintendent  in  special 
mid-monthly  meetings  Holmes'  "Study  of  School  Organization  and  the  Indi- 
vidual Child."  These  studies  of  the  principals  of  schools  on  school  efficiency 
have  exercised  a  wide  felt  influence  on  school  room  work  throughout  the 
schools.  (Dallas,  Tex.,  1915,  p.  13.) 

6.     TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 

Of  the  so-called  "Teachers'  Associations"  there  are  at  least 
two  sorts;  (1)  Legislative  or  deliberative  State,  Territorial,  or  City 
Associations ;  and  (2)  Local  groupings  of  teachers  for  specific  mut- 
ual purposes. 

(l)      STATE,  TERRITORIAL,  OR  CITY.      (TYPE  I.) 

(a)     State. 

In  November  about  two  hundred  of  our  two  hundred  sixty-four  teachers 
attended  the  State  Teachers'  Association  in  Topeka.  (Wichita,  Kan.,  1912-13, 
P- 22.) 

(6)     Territorial. 

The  most  important  educational  gathering  of  the  northwest  during  the 
past  year  was  that  of  the  Inland  Empire  Teachers'  Association  which  met  in 
the  Lewis  and  Clark  High  School,  April  4th,  5th  and  6th,  1912.  Through  this 
meeting,  not  only  the  teachers  of  the  Inland  Empire  but  also  the  citizens  of 
Spokane  were  permitted  to  hear  President  G.  Stanley  Hall  of  Clark  University, 
Dr.  A.  E.  Winship  of  Boston,  and  many  other  leaders  of  educational  thought. 
This  meeting  was  attended  by  upwards  of  two  thousand  teachers  and  others, 
holding  paid  memberships  in  the  organization.  (Spokane,  Wash.,  1911-12, 
p.  39.) 


40  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(c)     City  or  Local. 

During  the  school  year  1916-17  the  teachers  of  Jamestown  formed  an  or- 
ganization to  be  known  as  the  Jamestown  New  York  Teachers'  Association. 
Its  objects  as  set  forth  in  the  constitution  are: 

(a)  The  promotion  among  the  teachers  of  the  city  of  a  broader  and 
deeper  knowledge  concerning  educational  theories  and  current  educational 
problems  by  such  means  as  lectures  and  discussions  and  the  establishment  of 
proper  relations  with  other  educational  bodies  as  the  County  and  State  Teach- 
ers' Associations. 

(6)  A  study  of  economic  and  social  conditions  as  related  to  the  teaching 
profession  in  order  to  produce  a  greater  efficiency,  a  closer  acquaintance  and  a 
stronger  bond  of  sympathy  among  the  teachers  of  the  city. 

(c)  The  advancement  of  the  cause  of  education  in  this  community  through 
the  efforts  of  the  teachers  of  Jamestown  united  in  an  association  and  zealous 
for  promoting  progressive  educational  sentiment  and  favorable  conditions 
for  the  work  of  the  schools.  (Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1915-18,  p.  29.) 

A  second  type  may  be  seen  in  the  following: 

One  hundred  per  cent  of  the  Springfield  teachers  belong  to  the  Central 
Ohio  Teachers'  Association  and  the  last  meeting  was  held  in  Columbus  the 
first  Friday  and  Saturday  in  November.  The  Springfield  teachers  were  most 
interested  in  the  reorganization  of  the  State  Association  on  the  delegate 
basis,  and  to  amend  the  constitution  of  the  Association.  (Springfield,  Ohio, 
1921,  p.  72.) 

(2)      LOCAL  GROUPINGS.      (TYPE  II.) 

(a)     Activities. 

(i)     Study  Courses. 

About  one  hundred  seventy-five  of  the  grade  teachers  studied  Dr.  Mc- 
Murry's  "How  to  Study  and  Teaching  How  to  Study".  (Wichita,  Kan., 
1912-13,  p.  22.) 

Portland  teachers  are  a  hardworking  conscientious  force.  They  are  eager 
to  do  their  work  in  the  best  manner  and  are  anxious  to  improve.  This  was 
plainly  proven  during  the  past  season  when  the  Association  arranged  for  various 
study  clubs.  The  teachers  flocked  into  these  clubs  and  carried  their  work 
through.  The  Educational  Psychology  Club  alone  enrolled  one  hundred 
and  one  [out  of]  348.  (Portland,  Me.,  1919,  p.  9.) 

(ii)     Lecture  Courses. 
Isolated  Professional  Lectures. 

The  fourth  season  of  public  lectures  and  meetings  of  the  East  Providence 
Teachers'  Association  was  conducted  according  to  the  plan  of  preceding  years. 
The  Superintendent  of  Schools,  as  President  of  the  Association,  with  the 


Present-Day  Agencies  41 

Executive  Committee,  planned  the  following  series  of  meetings,  lectures  and 
concerts,  which  were  received  with  favor  and  liberally  patronized  by  the 
teachers  and  general  public. 

[See  later  section  for  non-professional  meetings  here  referred  to.] 
May  26.  Teachers'  Conference  at  the  High  School.  Addresses  by  Valen- 
tine Almy,  Assistant  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools  of  the  State  of  Rhode 
Island,  on  "The  Teacher  of  Tomorrow,"  and  by  Principal  John  L.  Alger  of 
the  Rhode  Island  State  Normal  School  on  the  subject,  "The  Teaching  of 
Arithmetic."  (East  Providence,  R.  I.,  1915,  p.  36.) 

As  a  further  contribution  to  the  growth  of  the  teachers  in  service,  we  have 
been  greatly  honored  in  having  addresses  from  Dr.  Calvin  N.  Kendall,  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  the  State  of  New  Jersey,  on  the  topics,  "Modern 
Purposes  of  Education"  and  "Realizing  the  Purposes  of  Education."  We  were 
also  delighted  to  welcome  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Keith,  the  new  principal  of  the  Indiana 
Normal  School,  who  gave  a  very  pleasing  address;  Professor  C.  P.  Zaner  of 
Columbus,  Ohio,  on  Penmanship,  and  Mrs.  Maude  Brown  Curtis  on  the  sub- 
jects of  "Reading"  and  "Language."  The  superintendent  also  had  the 
pleasure  of  speaking  to  the  teachers  on  the  subject  of  "Reading"  just  before 
the  close  of  the  school  year.  (Altoona,  Pa.,  1918,  pp.  8-9.) 

Isolated  Non-Professional  Lectures. 

November  16.  Lecture  on  "Modern  Miracles,"  by  Reno  B.  Welborne, 
Scientist. 

December  14.     Reading  by  Miss  Adelaide  Patterson,  "Disraeli." 

January  11.  Illustrated  lecture,  "South  America  of  Today  .  .  .  and 
Tomorrow,"  by  Albert  Leonard  Squier. 

February  10.  Lecture,  "What  Life  Means  to  Me,"  by  Gertrude  Breslaw 
Fuller. 

March  10.  Lecture  by  Irving  Bachellor,  Author,  "The  Cheerful  Yankee" 
(East  Providence,  R.  I.,  1915,  p.  36.) 

Non-Professional  Series  of  Lectures  or  Courses. 

During  the  year  a  very  successful  lecture  course  of  twelve  numbers  was 
conducted  by  the  teachers  in  the  High  School  Auditorium.  Ten  of  the  lec- 
tures were  on  Current  Events;  one  was  an  illustrated  lecture,  and  one  was  an 
interpretation  of  the  opera  Madame,  Butterfly.  (Williamsport,  Pa.,  1918-19, 
p.  12.) 

The  Springfield  Teachers'  Association  again  maintained  a  lecture  course. 
The  lecturer  was  Dr.  William  E.  Smyzer,  Dean  of  Ohio  Wesleyan  University. 
He  took  for  his  general  theme,  "Present-Day  Tendencies  in  Literature,"  and 
presented  six  lectures  as  follows:  First,  "A  Survey  of  Current  Literature" 
second,  "Bernard  Shaw  and  the  Shavian  Philosophy" ;  third,  "Arnold  Bennett 
and  the  Triology" ;  fourth,  "Rudyard  Kipling,  Teller  of  Tales" ;  fifth,  "Present- 
Day  Poetry";  and  sixth,  "Alfred  Tennyson  and  His  Pre-Raphaelite  Illus- 
trators." (Springfield,  Ohio,  1916-17,  p.  60.) 


42  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

Professional  Series  or  Courses. 

Two  courses  of  lectures  were  given  during  the  year,  one  by  Dr.  Bagley  of 
Columbia  University,  who  gave  four  lectures  on  professional  subjects,  and 
the  other  under  the  leadership  of  the  director  and  faculty  of  the  Bristol  County 
Agricultural  School.  (New  Bedford,  Mass.,  1919,  p.  32.) 

Another  illustration  of  the  professional  series  is  given  below: 

Addresses  or  series  of  addresses  have  been  recently  given  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  teachers  by  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsey,  Dr.  Frank  McMurry,  Dr.  Earl 
Barnes,  and  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  and  one  by  Miss  Lucy  Wheelock  under  the 
joint  auspices  of  the  Teachers'  and  Mothers'  Clubs.  (Jamestown,  N.  Y., 
1909-1912,  p.  20.) 

(6)     Support. 

The  various  means  of  support  that  are  employed  are  of  in- 
terest, because  where  other  than  teachers  are  concerned  in  that 
support  non-professional  influences  enter  to  color  the  offerings. 

PRIVATE. 

A  few  hundred  dollars  spent  on  means  of  improving  teachers  would  make 
the  thousands  spent  for  their  services  more  effective  in  results.  That  is  why 
private  citizens  who  are  providing  the  means  to  bring  to  the  teachers  the  ablest 
speakers  and  the  finest  concerts,  are  performing  for  Fitchburg  a  great  public 
service.  (Fitchburg,  Mass.,  1914,  p.  24.) 

PRIVATE  AND  TEACHERS. 

The  expense  for  these  lectures  amounted  to  $120.  Of  this  Chas.  T.  Jeffery 
paid  $83  and  the  teachers  $37.  (Kenosha,  Wis.,  1915,  p.  84.) 

TEACHERS  AND  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  board  also  assisted  the  teachers  in  maintaining  a  general  course  of 
lectures,  giving  them  free  use  of  the  high  school  auditorium  for  the  purpose. 
(Springfield,  Ohio,  1913,  p.  53.) 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  board  wisely  continued  the  policy  of  making  an  appropriation  for 
public  lectures,  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent.  While  the  lectures 
are  intended  primarily  for  the  teachers,  a  vigorous  effort  was  made  to  extend 
their  scope  and  interest  as  to  make  them  appeal  strongly  to  the  general  public. 
(Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1912-13,  p.  29.) 

TEACHERS  AND  PUBLIC. 

There  are  several  forms  which  such  support  takes,  three  of 
which  are  cited  below  as  illustrative. 


Present-Day  Agencies  43 

The  teachers  alone  could  not  have  supported  the  enterprise.  The  general 
public  recognized  the  merit  of  the  various  programs  presented,  and  together 
with  the  teachers  furnished  audiences  which  taxed  the  capacity  of  the  high 
school  auditorium.  (Pittsfield,  Mass.,  1916,  p.  25.) 

A  self-imposed  tax,  a  small  percentage  of  each  salary,  is  the  annual  custom. 
This  yields  a  sum  which  is  used  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  for  various 
common  purposes,  but  chiefly  to  secure  educational  lectures.  These  are  usual- 
ly of  a  strictly  professional  nature,  but  occasionally  a  lecture  is  given  of  such  a 
character  as  to  warrant  an  invitation  to  the  general  public  and  in  case  of  an 
unusual  expense  the  public  is  permitted  to  share  the  burden.  (Jamestown, 
N.  Y.,  1909-12,  p.  20.) 

The  course  was  well  supported  by  the  people  of  the  city,  and  a  balance  of 
$195  remains  in  the  treasury  as  a  nucleus  for  next  year's  course.  (Williams- 
port,  Pa.,  1918-19,  p.  12.) 

7.  PRINCIPALS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 

Important  educational  books  are  reviewed  and  current  educational  prob- 
lems are  discussed  at  monthly  meetings.  (Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1917,  p.  11.) 

The  reason  for  making  a  distinction  between  the  above  and 
the  Principals'  Meetings,  previously  discussed,  is  that  the  above 
seems  to  be  entirely  a  voluntary  group  and  one  not  in  any  way 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  school  system.  The  same  report  from 
which  the  above  quotation  is  cited  also  contained  a  reference  to 
principals'  meetings  similar  to  those  previously  mentioned. 

8.  SPECIAL  CLUBS  OR  ASSOCIATIONS. 

These  are  in  the  main  merely  groups  of  like-minded  teachers, 
meeting  for  the  discussion  of  mutually  interesting  subjects.  The 
illustrations  cited  below  are  characteristic  of  the  groups. 

The  Trenton  Kindergarten  Association  had  five  meetings  dur- 
ing the  year  and 

instructive  talks  were  given  by  Mrs.  McLean  of  Teachers  College  on  "Games," 
Miss  Wells  of  the  Normal  School  on  "Industrial  Arts  in  the  Grades,"  and 
Miss  Gambrill  of  the  Normal  School  on  "The  Psychology  of  Play." 

Physical  Education  Club.  There  were  demonstrations  of  games  and 
dances,  book  reviews  and  discussions.  (Trenton,  N.  J.,  1918,  p.  39.) 

The  kindergarten  teachers  are  organized  into  a  club  which  meets  once  a 
month,  and  new  methods  of  teaching  are  considered.  The  attendance  is  good 
and  a  fine  spirit  of  progression  is  shown.  (Manchester,  N.  H.,  1919-20,  p.  12.) 

9.  INSTITUTES. 

Institutes  may  be  held  at  various  times  during  the  year.  The 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  meeting  is  that  it  is  for  the 


44  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

consideration  of  professional  subjects  by  the  teachers.  The  pur- 
poses are  nearly  as  diverse  in  character  as  the  methods  of  holding 
the  meetings. 

(l)      TIME  OF  HOLDING  MEETINGS. 

(a)     Yearly. 

The  thirty-third  annual  session  of  the  Altoona  District  Teachers'  Insti- 
tute was  held  August  25-29, 1919.  (Altoona,  Pa.,  1919-20,  p.  5.) 

Poughkeepsie,  New  York,  held  its  Institute  in  the  winter. 

One  of  the  recognized  institutions  in  connection  with  our  public  schools 
is  the  annual  teachers'  institute.  The  one  which  we  held  last  February  sur- 
passed in  excellence  any  that  we  had  previously  held.  (Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
1915,  p.  18.) 

(6)     Twice  Yearly. 

Instead  of  four  or  five  successive  days  of  institute  work,  the  session  has 
been  divided  into  two  parts,  each  lasting  two  days,  with  five  periods  in  each  day. 
The  first  part  occurs  during  the  Tuesday  and  Wednesday  following  Labor  Day, 
school  opening  on  Thursday.  The  second  part  occurs  on  the  last  Thursday  and 
Friday  of  the  fall  semester,  promotions  having  been  made  on  the  preceding 
Wednesday,  and  the  spring  semester  opening  on  the  following  Monday. 
(Spokane,  Wash.,  1911-12,  p.  40.) 

(c)  Three  Times  Yearly. 

Teachers'  Institute  will  be  held  on  October  23  and  24,  November  21, 1914, 
and  February  12  and  13, 1915.  (Chester,  Pa.,  1914-15,  p.35.) 

The  first  session  was  held  October  10  and  11,  the  second,  October  17  and 
18,  and  the  third,  October  31  and  November  1,  1919.  (Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1918- 
20,  p.  12.) 

(d)  Four  Times  Yearly. 

From  having  a  session  of  five  days'  duration  we  have  come  to  holding  a  two 
days'  session  just  before  the  opening,  and  a  single  day's  session  in  October, 
January  and  March,  in  order  to  obviate  too  frequent  meetings  of  teachers  with 
supervisors.  (Seattle,  Wash.,  1910,  p.  31 .) 

(e)  Monthly. 

Under  the  rules  of  the  Board,  teachers  are  required  to  meet  at  least  once 
a  month  for  professional  study.  This  is  under  the  caption  "Teachers'  In- 
stitutes." (Austin,  Tex.,  1907,  p.  35.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  45 

(/)     Frequently. 

For  the  teachers  in  service,  one-day  institutes  are  held  at  intervals  during 
the  school  year.  These  have  taken  the  place  of  the  traditional  "weekly" 
institutes.  (Reading,  Pa.,  1910-11,  p.  22.) 

(2)      PURPOSES. 

(a)  Inspiration,  Information  and  Direc- 

tion. 

The  purpose  is  to  keep  constantly  before  our  teachers  the  need  for  pro- 
fessional advancement,  to  give  them  as  much  inspiration  as  it  is  possible  to  give 
in  such  limited  time,  and  to  give  such  information  and  direction  as  may  aid 
them  in  placing  their  work  on  a  higher  plane.  (Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1916,  p.  24.) 

The  purpose  of  the  Institute  was  more  for  the  consideration  of  the  pro- 
fessional side  of  the  teacher's  work  than  for  a  review  of  the  branches  of  in- 
struction required  for  a  teacher's  certificate.  It  was  sought  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  teacher's  service  by  the  creation  and  strengthening  of  ideals, 
by  the  fostering  of  faith  in  educational  work,  and  by  inspiration  to  larger  and 
better  things  in  the  work  of  teaching.  (Muskogee,  Okla.,  1911-12,  pp.  27-28.) 

(b)  Inspiration. 

Teachers  need  the  stimulus  and  the  inspiration  of  such  a  gathering  as 
this,  and  I  hope  the  time  will  never  come  when  we  shall  be  deprived  of  this 
privilege.  (Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  1915,  p.  18.) 

The  institute  was  a  great  benefit  to  the  teachers  and  inspired  them  to 
do  better  work  for  the  year.  (Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1918-20,  p.  12.) 

(c)  Inspiration  and  Information. 

The  institute  for  teachers,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  improve  the  quality 
of  service  by  the  creation  and  strengthening  of  ideals  by  fostering  of  faith  in 
educational  work,  and  by  adding  to  the  fund  of  the  teacher's  knowledge  of 
subject  matter  and  of  educational  practice  .  .  .  (Seattle,  Wash.,  1910, 
pp.30-31.) 

(d)  Information  and  Direction. 

The  work  of  the  Institute  resulted  in  some  very  definite  plans  which  hav 
been  put  in  operation  in  the  schools  and  which  have  worked  out  successfully 
this  past  year.     (Altoona,  Pa.,  1918-19,  p.  24.) 

The  past  two  years  the  textbook  used  in  institute  work  was  Monroe's 
History  of  Education,  admittedly  the  strongest  single  text  written  on  this 
subject.  (Austin,  Tex.,  1907,  p.  35.) 

Once  each  month  a  teacher's  institute  is  held,  the  special  study  of  which  is 
the  broad  underlying  principles  of  education  which  are  common  to  all  forms 
of  educational  work.  (Houston,  Tex.,  1916-17,  p.  20.) 

The  Institute  serves  in  a  general  way  the  purpose  of  reawakening  one's 
interest  in  the  special  questions  of  pedagogy.  (Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  1906,  p.  31.) 


46  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(3)  DISADVANTAGES. 

Some  disadvantages  of  the  Institute  are  expressed  in  the 
following  citations: 

This  new  plan  has  resulted  in  more  specific  work,  not  to  speak  of  the  elim- 
ination of  the  physical  exhaustion  following  a  week  of  lectures.  (Reading, 
Pa.,  1910-11,  p.  22.) 

.  .  .  the  efforts  at  professional  growth  during  the  institute  immediately 
preceding  the  opening  of  school  was  not  so  generally  popular.  Many  of  the 
teachers  felt  that  they  were  unnecessarily  and  unjustly  being  deprived  of  part 
of  their  vacation.  This  feeling  among  some  of  the  teachers,  in  a  measure, 
prevented  us  from  securing  the  highest  results.  Earnest  appeals  by  speakers 
to  prepare  for  the  best  possible  service  in  the  greatest  of  callings  fell  upon  the 
ears  of  many  who  could  not  divest  themselves  of  the  conviction  that  they  were 
being  deprived  of  rest  and  comfort  during  one  of  the  hottest  September  weeks 
that  Memphis  has  experienced.  (Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12,  p.  37.) 

Formerly  dependence  for  effects  was  placed  upon  lectures  of  a  general 
educational  character,  most  of  the  work  being  done  by  lecturers  and  instructors 
having  no  connection  with  the  local  schools  and  little  acquaintance  with  the 
local  course  of  study  and  work.  Work  of  this  character  was  felt  to  be  bene- 
ficial and  helpful,  but  it  lacked  the  element  of  definiteness  and  had  too  little 
reference  to  details  of  work  immediately  confronting  the  teachers.  (Seattle, 
Wash.,  1910,  p.  31.) 

(4)  ACTIVITIES. 

(a)     Lectures  by  Professional  Speakers. 

The  thirty-second  annual  session  of  the  Altoona  District  Teachers'  In- 
stitute was  held  August  26-30,  with  the  following  as  instructors :  Dr.  Reuben 
Post  Halleck,  Louisville,  Ky.,  Dr.  J.  A.  H.  Keith,  Principal  of  Indiana  Normal 
School,  Indiana,  Pa.;  Dr.  C.  B.  Robertson,  University  of  Pittsburg,  Pittsburg, 
Pa. ;  and  Miss  Emily  Barry,  Middletown,  Ohio.  (Altoona,  Pa.,  1918-19,  p.  24.) 

The  lecturers  were  Dr.  A.  E.  Winship  of  Boston,  Dr.  Myron  T.  Scudder  of 
New  York  City,  Dr.  A.  R.  Bennett  and  Dr.  John  C.  Bliss  of  the  New  Paltz 
Normal  School.  (Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  1915,  p.  18.) 

(6)     Section  Meetings. 

There  are  two  hours  of  time  given  to  each  of  these  institutes.  During  the 
first  hour,  the  teachers  meet  in  groups  or  study  circles,  each  under  the  leader- 
ship of  some  competent  instructor,  each  group  making  a  study  of  some  good 
textbook  on  education,  or  some  special  educational  problem.  It  is  required 
that  each  teacher  shall  have  made  a  study  of  some  good  book  on  each  of  the 
following  subjects:  (1)  School  Management;  (2)  Psychology;  (3)  History 
of  Education ;  (4)  Principles  of  Education.  After  the  teacher  has  made  a  study 
of  four  such  books,  the  rest  of  the  course  becomes  largely  optional,  a  wide 
range  of  subjects  being  offered. 


Present-Day  Agencies  47 

The  second  hour  of  the  institute  is  given  to  an  address  on  educational  sub- 
jects, delivered  to  the  entire  teaching  body,  generally  by  some  educational 
speaker  from  outside  the  school  system.  (Houston,  Tex.,  1916-17,  p.  20.) 

A  different  use  is  described  in  Spokane,  Wash. 

At  these  institutes,  in  addition  to  two  general  lectures  each  day,  section 
meetings  are  held  in  which  the  teachers  are  grouped  by  grades  or  departments 
for  round-table  discussions,  the  supervisors  meet  the  teachers  by  grades  to 
outline  the  work  in  special  subjects  for  the  semester  to  follow,  and  every  branch 
of  the  work  is  organized  so  that  there  is  no  delay  in  getting  down  to  solid  work 
as  soon  as  the  school  room  doors  have  swung  open  for  the  reception  of  pupils. 
(Spokane,  Wash.,  1910-12,  p.  40.) 

A  third  form  of  these  section  meetings  in  described  as  follows : 

In  September,  1914,  a  change  was  made  in  the  organization  of  the  monthly 
work  of  the  teachers'  institute.  In  addition  to  the  usual  announcements, 
addresses  and  professional  talks  incident  to  such  meetings,  all  the  white  teachers 
of  the  city  were  divided  into  fourteen  groups  under  fourteen  strong  leaders, 
and  each  group  has  made  a  study  during  the  year  of  one  of  the  following  eight 
books :  A  Guide  to  Pictures,  Caffin ;  Teaching  the  Common  Branches,  Charters; 
What  We  Hear  in  Music,  Faulkner;  Civics  and  Health,  Allen;  The  American 
Secondary  School,  Sachs;  New  Demands  in  Education,  Munro;  The  Normal 
Child  and  Primary  Education,  Gesell;  School  Organization  and  the  Individual 
Child,  Holmes.  Nearly  one-third  of  the  teachers  chose  the  book  entitled, 
Teaching  the  Common  Branches,  there  being  five  study  groups  in  this  book. 
The  colored  teachers  in  their  institute  have  studied  in  a  single  group  this  same 
book,  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  conducting  the  class  in  person.  Each 
one  of  these  books  studied  touches  directly  in  some  way  the  work  of  the  class- 
room and  each  one  of  the  books  represents  a  distinct  recent  American  contri- 
bution to  the  literature  of  teaching.  (Dallas,  Tex.,  1915,  p.  13.) 

III.    DEVICES. 

(I)     INCENTIVES  AND  INDUCEMENTS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF 
EDUCATION. 

1.     SALARY  SCHEDULE. 

(l)      MANDATORY  STUDY. 

Two  forms  of  mandatory  regulations  concerning  advanced 
professional  study  are  given  below.  The  first  is  negative,  as  it 
concerns  the  salary  schedule,  merely  implying  a  relation. 

Over  a  year  ago  the  School  Board  passed  a  regulation  that  each  teacher 
should  earn  a  university  credit,  or  its  equivalent,  during  the  school  year. 
A  "university  credit"  was  defined  as  meaning  approximately  twenty  hours  of 


48  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

recitation  in  some  regular  study  course.  A  thousand  of  the  teachers  responded 
to  this  regulation ;  sixty,  including  those  on  leaves  of  absence,  were  excused  for 
good  reasons;  while  about  one  hundred  have  not  reported  as  yet.  (Portland, 
Ore.,  1918,  p.  20.) 

The  second  is  a  positive  form  detailing  relations  to  salary 
increases. 

In  detailing  a  number  of  the  features  of  the  salary  schedule  to  one  of  the 
educational  journals  the  following  were  pointed  out: 

1.  "Elimination  of  the  conventional  basis  of  teachers'  salary  schedules 
such  as  grade  school,  junior  high  school,  and  high  school  salary  schedules. 
Under  the  schedule  adopted  the  college  graduate  teaching  in  the  grades  is 
regarded  just  as  valuable  as  if  she  were  teaching  in  the  High  School.     A  normal 
graduate  teaching  in  the  Junior  High  School  is  no  better  paid  than  as  if  she 
were  teaching  in  the  grades.     In  other  words,  no  department  suffers  by  com- 
parison with  any  other  department  on  basis  of  salaries.     This  principle  will 
prevent  the  massing  of  the  best  teaching  talent  in  any  particular  department. 

2.  "Recognition  of  the  principle  that  teaching  is  a  profession  that  re- 
quires acquaintance  with  the  best  and  latest  thought  to  remain  permanently 
in  the  profession,  just  as  in  medicine  or  dentistry,  is  involved  in  these  rules. 
Professional  advancement  is  made  mandatory.     Every  teacher  must,  within 
every  four  year  period,  get  off  thirty  hours  credit  of  university  or  normal 
school  work  in  professional  advancement  or  self-improvement  courses.     Pro- 
fessional advancement  is  made  the  sine  qua  non  for  all  teachers  who  expect 
to  remain  in  the  profession.     In  future  revisions  we  shall  undoubtedly  shorten 
the  period  within  which  professional  advancement  must  take  place  and  shall 
also  give  credit  for  work  done  beyond  the  minimum  requirements. 

3.  "The  Board  of  Education,  instead  of  subsidizing  ambition  by  extend- 
ing bonuses  which  a  limited  number  might  attain  through  summer  school 
courses,  has  subsidized  universal  professional  training.     Under  these  rules  the 
Board  of  Education  pays  all  expenses  and  half  the  fees  of  local  University 
Extension  Courses.     The  welfare  of  the  schools  is  too  important  to  permit  any 
laggards  in  the  teaching  ranks.     This  provision,  we  feel,  will  awaken  in  many 
a  teacher  a  fresh  desire  for  higher  education  and  will  induce  many  to  take 
residence  courses  in  colleges  and  universities.     It  is,  also,  emphasizing  the  fact 
that  education  is  life  and  is  co-equal  with  life.     We  hope  also  that  out  of  the 
University  Extension  Courses  which  we  shall  establish  here  that  they  may  come 
to  represent  the  center  of  learning  and  culture  to  which  all  citizens  of  our  city 
may  come  to  satisfy  their  cravings  for  a  clearer  and  more  ample  revelation  of 
those  meanings  of  life  that  the  university  has  in  its  power  to  give. 

4.  "To  keep  alive  the  fire  of  professional  interest  after  the  teacher  has 
reached  the  end  of  the  period  of  increased  earnings,  the  rules  provide  extra 
maximum  increments  covering  a  period  of  sixteen  years  beyond  the  maximum. 
Every  four  years  a  teacher  may  obtain  a  fifty  dollar  increase  to  her  salary  pro- 
vided she  has  done  a  stipulated  amount  of  work  in  University  Extension 
Courses.     We  want  our  teachers  to  feel  that  a  time  never  comes  when  the 


Present-Day  Agencies  49 

Board  of  Education  fails  to  take  notice  of  sustained  professional  interest." 
(Johnstown,  Pa.,  1920,  pp.  50-51.) 

The  Rules  governing  teachers  and  salaries  in  the  same  city 
are  as  follows: 

BASIS  OF  SALARY  SCHEDULES. 

Teachers'  salaries  shall  be  based  upon  preparation,  experience,  profes- 
sional advancement  and  a  recommendation  of  "Satisfactory"  on  the  part  of 
the  Supervisory  force.  .  .  . 

No  DEPARTMENTAL  DIFFERENTIAL. 

No  differential  in  salary  shall  be  recognized  for  service  in  any  department 
of  the  school  system  except  as  may  be  construed  under  rule  one. 

PROFESSIONAL  ADVANCEMENT. 

Professional  advancement  shall  be  denned  as  consisting  of  resident  or 
extension  courses  in  education  or  self-improvement  courses  in  academic  or 
practical  subjects  or  skills,  as  they  may  be  successfully  pursued  under  the  jur- 
isdiction of  any  college,  university,  normal  or  trade  school.  The  Superin- 
tendent of  Schools  shall  construe  the  term  professional  advancement,  and  its 
evaluation  in  credit  hours,  in  any  instance  not  covered  by  this  definition. 
All  elections  of  extension  or  resident  courses  to  comply  with  the  requirements 
of  these  rules  shall  be  subject  to  approval  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
He  shall  also  determine  whether  the  character  of  the  individual  work  done 
merits  accrediting. 

FOURTH  ANNUAL  INCREMENT. 

Each  member  of  the  department  of  instruction  in  the  system  shall  be  not 
entitled  to  a  fourth  annual  increment  until  he  or  she  shall  have  completed 
subsequent  to  the  adoption  of  these  rules,  at  least  30  hours  of  work  toward  pro- 
fessional advancement. 

UNIVERSITY  EXTENSION  COURSES. 

The  Board  of  Education  shall  provide  quarters  and  half  the  fees  and  ex- 
penses of  all  local  University  Extension  Courses  for  professional  advancement, 
that  they  agree  to  authorize. 

EXTRA-MAXIMUM  INCREMENTS. 

Teachers  who  have  reached  the  maximum  of  Schedule  A  or  B  and  who,  at 
the  end  of  each  or  any  successive  four  year  period  after  reaching  such  maximum, 
shall  have  completed  30  hours  work  toward  professional  advancement  shall 
receive  thereafter  an  additional  850  annual  increment  to  their  salaries.  The 
sum  total  of  such  increments  shall  not  exceed  $200.  Such  increments  shall 
be  given  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  twentieth,  twenty-fourth  and  twenty- 
eighth  years  of  experience.  All  teachers  now  in  the  employ  of  the  district  at 
the  maximum  shall  be  eligible  to  earn,  in  successive  four  year  periods,  the  extra- 


50  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

maximum  increments.  The  sum  total  years  of  experience  of  all  teachers  now 
at  the  maximum  or  who  shall  be  elected  at  the  maximum,  shall,  as  far  as  the 
schedule  herein  adopted  are  concerned,  be  reckoned  as  twelve  years  of  ex- 
perience. (Johnstown,  Pa.,  1920,  pp.  51  ff.) 

(2)      VOLUNTARY  STUDY. 

The  following  citations  are  illustrative  of  simple  or  non- 
elaborate  provisions: 

When  the  maximum  of  salary  is  received  a  teacher  may  further  increase  • 
her  salary  by  taking  prescribed  courses  of  study,  and  after  a  term  of  service  of 
four  years  at  this  increased  salary  a  teacher  may  apply  for  the  privilege  of 
studying  still  further  and  may  obtain  an  additional  increase.     (Columbus,  Ga., 
1916,  pp.  18-19.) 

After  appointment,  for  which  a  large  amount  of  professional  preparation 
is  prerequisite,  teachers  in  service  are  credited  for  work  in  professional  im- 
provement by  a  system  of  credits  which  determine  salary  increases. 

The  maximum  salary  for  elementary  teachers  is  $950  and  an  additional 
advance  of  $50,  to  a  maximum  of  $1000,  is  granted  to  all  teachers  who  have 
pursued  after  appointment  professional  work  aggregating  a  total  of  at  least 
eight  credits.  This  work  may  be  done  during  the  school  year,  afternoons, 
evenings,  or  Saturdays,  at  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  at  the  Art  Academy 
and  at  various  other  educational  institutions,  or  in  school  houses  under  in- 
structors approved  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools.  It  may  also  take  the 
form  of  summer  work  or  the  completing  of  a  year's  course  in  the  State  Reading 
Circle.  (Cincinnati,  O.,  (1)  1914,  pp.  53-54.) 

The  School  Committee  may  increase  the  salary  of  any  teacher  at  its  dis- 
cretion in  excess  of  advances  provided  by  regular  schedules,  in  recognition  of 
approved  professional  study  or  courses  taken  during  employment  and  for 
marked  superiority  of  service,  upon  special  recommendation  by  the  superin- 
tendent and  principal.  (Haverhill,  Mass.,  1919,  p.  7.) 

Under  a  "Premium  Plan" 

a  grade  teacher  would  receive  $5  additional  salary  per  year  for  each  ad- 
ditional two  points  of  extension  work.  (Stamford,  Conn.,  1921,  p.  11.) 

Teachers  of  the  district,  holding  State  Certificates  .  .  .  who  have  taught 
one  year  at  the  regular  maximum  salary  of  their  class,  shall  receive  an  addi- 
tional annual  increase  of  $25  for  every  72  hours  of  college  credits  obtained  in 
not  more  than  two  professional  and  academic  branches,  such  as  Education, 
English  Literature,  History,  Modern  Language,  Science,  etc.,  until  the 
amount  of  $1,050  a  year  is  reached  by  the  teachers  of  the  first  six  grades,  $1,250 
by  the  teachers  of  the  Junior  High  School  and  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and 
$1,600  by  teachers  of  the  High  School.  Provided,  however,  that  for  teachers 
of  the  elementary  grades  and  the  Junior  High  School,  such  special  increase 
shall  not  exceed  $50  in  one  year,  and  for  teachers  of  the  High  School,  shall 
not  exceed  $100  in  one  year. 


Present-Day  Agencies  51 

Teachers  who  have  taught  at  the  highest  special  increase  in  their  class  for 
one  year,  and  have  obtained  the  master's  degree,  earned  by  University  work, 
shall  receive  an  additional  increase  of  one  hundred  ($100)  dollars. 1 

The  salary  schedule  has  an  added  attractiveness  in  the  liberal  provisions 
it  makes  for  teachers  who  are  desirous  of  self -improvement.  An  immediate  in- 
crease of  $50  in  salary  is  granted  and  a  like  sum  added  to  the  maximum  of  the 
schedule,  to  a  limit  of  $300  for  each  eight  semester  units  of  college  credit 
received.  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1920,  p.  19.) 

Two  detailed  and  elaborate  citations  should  be  made.  These 
are  from  Beverly,  Massachusetts,  and  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  School  Board  on  February  25,  1918  it  was  voted  that 
a  special  committee  be  appointed  to  study  the  salary  situation  in  Beverly  and 
suggest  a  plan  for  rewarding  meritorious  service.  (Beverly,  Mass.,  1918-19, 
p.  5.) 

The  Board  .  .  .  adopted  the  following  recommendations  of  this  special 
committee  for  the  encouragement  of  professional  study:  "Encouragement  of 
Professional  Growth  with  Length  of  Tenure." 

(A)  The  term  "Teacher,"  as  used  in  this  section,  shall  include  all  persons 
in  teaching  or  supervisory  positions  in  the  public  schools. 

(B)  Eligibility.     Any  teacher  who  has  taught  not  less  than  12  years  the 
last  five  of  which  shall  have  been  continuous  service  in  Beverly  and  who  meets 
the  conditions  referred  to  in  Section  C,  shall  be  eligible  to  a  special  salary  in- 
crease of  $50.     Five  years  after  receiving  a  special  increase  a  teacher  shall 
again  become  eligible  to  a  similar  increase  for  work  done  since  the  previous  in- 
crease was  granted. 

Time  spent  on  leave  of  absence  for  professional  study  shall  count  as  part 
of  the  continuous  service,  and  in  the  discretion  of  the  Board  leave  of  absence 
not  exceeding  one  year  for  other  purposes  may  count  toward  the  required  five 
years  or  be  deemed  not  to  break  the  continuity  of  service. 

(C)  Procedure.     Teachers  are  invited  to  file  with  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools  before  October  1  of  any  school  year,  on  a  form  provided  for  this 
purpose,  a  statement  of  such  special  work  as  they  have  done  for  which  in  their 
judgment  the  school  committee  may  desire  to  grant  credit  towards  this  special 
salary  increase.     An  outline  of  the  work  which  the  committee  approves  may 
be  obtained  through  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

The  Instruction  Committee,  after  consultation  with  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools,  shall  make  recommendations  for  salary  increases  under  this  section 
not  later  than  December  1st  of  each  year. 

(D)  Time.     This  section  shall  take  effect  on  October  29,  1918. 

Outline  of  Requirements  for  Special  Salary  Increases  and  Opportunities 
for  Professional  Growth  Which  the  Committee  Deems  Worthy  of  Special 
Recognition.  Details  relating  to  Chap.  II,  Sec.  8,  Paragraph  C  of  Rules. 

^Salary  Schedule,  Allentown,  Pa.,  1918-1919,  pp.  26-27. 


52  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(A)  Teaching  efficiency  as  shown  by  results  which  in  the  opinion  of  the 
Principal  and  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  indicates  that  the  teacher  meets 
the  conditions  outlined  in  Chapter  III,  Section  5,  Paragraph  2  of  the  Rules 
shall  be  considered  the  first  requirement. 

(B)  The  second  requirement  shall  be  that  professional  work  by  the 
teacher  be  deemed  by  the  Instruction  Committee  and  Superintendent  of 
Schools  worthy  of  six  credits  in  one  or  more  of  the  following:      .    .    . 

(a)  Resident  study  at  an  institution  of  recognized  standing  taken  while 
the  teacher  is  on  leave  of  absence :  1  credit  for  each  half  course. 

(6)  University  Extension  Courses  conducted  by  the  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Education :  1  credit  per  16  class  hours. 

(c)  Normal   School   or  College  Correspondence  Courses  of  standard 
grade:  2  credits  for  16  or  more  lessons. 

(d)  University  Extension  Courses  offered  by  the  Committee  on  Extension 
Courses:     1  credit  for  each  half  course. 

(e)  Attendance  at  Normal  or  College  summer  schools:    3  credits  for 
30  or  more  program  hours. 

(/)  Reading  Courses,  four  or  more  books :  1  credit.  The  teacher  shall 
prepare  an  abstract  of  each  book  read  and  after  reasonable  notification  shall 
be  prepared  to  take  an  examination  upon  any  one  of  these  books  which  the 
Instruction  Committee  and  Superintendent  of  Schools  may  select.  Two  of 
the  books  must  relate  directly  to  the  class-room  work  of  the  teacher.  Not  more 
than  2  credits  may  be  awarded  for  reading  courses. 

(g)  A  thesis  on  some  topic  related  to  school  work  and  based  upon  current 
educational  literature  and  personal  class-room  experience :  1  credit. 

(h)  Accomplishments  through  miscellaneous  activities  such  as  travel, 
music,  lecture  courses,  etc.,  which  have  been  of  such  character  as  to  relate  to 
school  work  and  which  the  teacher  feels  confident  have  contributed  to  in- 
creased success  in  the  school-room:  Maximum  of  two  of  the  necessary 
6  credits. 

Study  courses  for  which  credit  is  given  must  relate  to  the  work  or  pro- 
fession of  the  teacher. 

Not  more  than  three  credits  may  be  awarded  for  study  courses  taken 
during  any  one  school  year,  nor  more  than  5  credits  for  those  of  any  twelve 
month  period,  except  in  case  of  study  at  an  institution  of  recognized  standing 
while  teacher  is  on  leave  of  absence. 


CLASS-ROOM  WORK. 

Provided  approval  of  the  general  plan  has  been  granted  in  advance  by  the 
Instruction  Committee  and  Superintendent  of  Schools,  a  teacher  may  use 
her  class-room  as  a  laboratory  for  the  study  of  educational  problems  involving 
observation,  study  and  report.  The  satisfactory  completion  of  the  study  of  an 
important  problem  requiring  investigation  and  study  for  not  less  than  two 
years  may  be  awarded  a  maximum  of  five  credits.  A  problem  requiring  not 
less  than  one  year  may  receive  a  maximum  of  3  credits. 


Present-Day  Agencies  53 

PROFESSIONAL  SERVICE. 

From  1  to  4  credits  may  be  recommended  by  the  Instruction  Committee 
and  Superintendent  of  Schools  for  exceptional  service  to  the  school  system 
which  is  readily  recognized  as  surpassing  the  requirements  of  Chap.  Ill, 
Section  5,  Paragraph  2.  (Beverly,  Mass.,  1918-19,  pp.  6-8.) 

The  second  citation  is  from  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin : 

While  the  regular  increment  is  $50,  the  more  ambitious  and  efficient  teacher 
may  secure  a  larger  increase  each  year  until  she  reaches  the  maximum.  .  .  . 

.  .  .  For  unusually  good  work  accompanied  by  study,  a  teacher  may, 
upon  recommendation  of  the  principal,  approved  by  the  superintendent,  be 
granted  a  double  promotion  in  salary.  (Study  in  the  above  instance  shall  be 
understood  to  mean :) 

(a)  Approved  extension  professional  course  credits  (at  least  two  courses) 
or 

(6)  An  unusual  work  of  investigation  of  which  the  results  are  approved 
as  contributing  to  the  efficiency  of  the  school  system,  or 

(c)  Approved  professional  night  school  courses  (at  least  two  courses)  or 

(d)  Satisfactory  proof  of  the  reading  of  at  least  eight  professional  books 
on  an  approved  list  furnished  by  the  Superintendent,  or 

(e)  Extensive  travel  approved  by  the  superintendent  as  contributing  to 
professional  improvement. 

(/)  For  unusual  leadership  in  student  activities  or  in  an  administrative 
capacity,  a  teacher  may,  upon  recommendation  of  the  principal,  approved  by 
the  superintendent,  be  awarded  an  additional  increment  in  salary. 

In  cases  1,  2  and  3  detailed  written  recommendations  must  be  filed  in  the 
office  of  the  superintendent. 

.  .  .  For  credits,  at  least  three  semester  hours  in  courses  which  may  be 
helpful  to  the  teacher  in  her  work,  earned  at  a  college  or  university  summer 
school  approved  by  the  superintendent,  she  may  be  granted  a  double  promo- 
tion in  salary. 

.  .  .  Any  class  Al  teacher  (any  teacher  receiving  the  above  maximum) 
who  complies  with  Paragraph  4  [above]  shall  be  entitled  to  $50  additional 
salary  for  a  period  not  in  excess  of  three  years  following  such  compliance. 
(La  Crosse,  Wis.,  1920,  pp.  28-29.) 

2.  BONUS. 

See  the  reports  from  Auburn,  New  York  and  from  Rochester, 
New  York,  p.  26. 

3.  REWARD  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  SERVICE. 
See  the  report  from  Beverly,  Mass.,  p.  53. 

4.  SCHOLARSHIP. 

See  the  reports  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Toledo,  Ohio,  and  Indianap- 
olis, Ind.,  pp.  27-28. 


54  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

5.     LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE. 

(1)  WITHOUT  PAY. 

That  the  professional  spirit  is  growing  and  that  many  of  our  teachers  are 
preparing  to  extend  their  education  along  both  academic  and  professional  lines, 
is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  an  increasing  number  this  year  have  asked  and 
obtained  leave  of  absence  for  the  purpose  of  attending  some  university,  college 
or  normal  school.  (Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1916,  p.  26.) 

(2)  WITHOUT  PAY  BUT  WITH  SALARY  INCREASE. 

A  further  training  of  teachers  in  service  was  stimulated  by  a  change  in 
the  Board's  Regulations  giving  to  teachers  absent  on  leave  for  study  at  higher 
institutions  the  benefit  of  the  automatic  increase  in  their  salaries  the  same  as 
if  they  had  been  in  active  service  in  the  schools.  (St.  Louis,  Mo.,  (3)  1916-17, 
p.  68.) 

The  Superintendent  may  grant  leave  of  absence,  without  pay,  for  pro- 
fessional study.  On  filing  with  the  Superintendent  satisfactory  evidence  as 
to  the  character  and  extent  of  such  study,  the  time  devoted  by  the  teacher  to 
this  study,  may,  with  the  approval  of  the  Superintendent,  be  credited  to  the 
teacher  as  experience  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  teacher's  salary  ad- 
vancement under  the  schedule  applying.1 

In  this  connection  see  also  the  salary  schedule  of  Beverly, 
Mass.,  p.  51. 

(3)  WITH  PAY. 

Leave  of  absence  with  pay,  or  with  part  pay,  is  an  accepted 
principle  among  higher  institutions  in  this  country.  An  early  ex- 
tension of  the  principle  to  the  elementary  school  teachers  of  a  city, 
which  if  not  the  earliest  is  at  least  classic,  is  given  below. 

Extract  from  the  Rules  of  the  School  Committee,  Newton  Public  Schools. 

Chapter  IV,  Section  4. 

Any  teacher  who  has  served  continuously  in  the  Newton  Schools  for  a 
period  of  not  less  than  seven  years  may,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  super- 
intendent, be  granted  leave  of  absence  not  exceeding  one  year.  During  such 
absence  the  teacher  shall  continue  in  the  employment  of  the  school  department, 
and  shall  receive  a  monthly  salary  equal  to  one-half  his  or  her  monthly  salary 
of  the  preceding  year.  A  teacher's  leave  of  absence  shall  be  spent  largely  or 
wholly  in  study,  such  study  to  be  undertaken  with  the  advice  of  the  superin- 
tendent and  carried  on  in  such  institutions  or  in  such  places  and  under  such 
teachers  as  the  Superintendent  may  approve. 

As  a  condition  of  receiving  such  leave  of  absence,  the  teacher  shall  enter 
into  a  contract  to  continue  in  the  service  of  the  school  department  for  a  period 

lSalary  Schedule  of  Cleveland  Schools,  Adopted  May  24,  1920,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  p.  4. 


Present-Day  Agencies  55 

of  at  least  three  years  after  the  expiration  of  the  leave  of  absence;  failing  so  to 
continue  in  the  service  of  the  school  department  the  teacher  shall  repay  to 
said  department  a  sum  bearing  the  same  ratio  to  the  amount  of  salary  re- 
ceived while  on  leave  of  absence  that  the  unfulfilled  portion  of  the  three 
subsequent  years'  service  bears  to  the  full  three  years. 

Provided,  however,  that  the  teacher  shall  be  released  from  such  payment 
if  her  failure  to  serve  the  three  years  as  stipulated  be  due  to  her  illness,  or  if 
she  be  discharged  or  voluntarily  released  from  her  position  by  the  school 
department. l 

In  1908  the  Board  of  Education  ruled  that  any  teacher  or  principal  who 
shall  have  served  the  City  of  Rochester  for  seven  years,  may  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  superintendent  and  with  the  approval  of  the  Board  of  Education 
be  granted  leave  of  absence  for  travel  or  study.  The  essential  conditions  for 
such  privilege  are  that  definite  reports  shall  be  made  to  the  Superintendent 
during  the  absence  and  that  applicants  shall  file  with  the  Board  a  written  agree- 
ment to  remain  in  the  service  of  the  Board  for  three  years,  after  the  leave  of 
absence,  or  refund  such  part  of  the  salary  paid  during  the  leave  of  absence  as 
the  unexpired  portion  bears  to  the  three  year  period.  Such  leave  may  not  be 
taken  oftener  than  once  in  eight  consecutive  years.  The  salary  paid  during 
such  leave  shall  in  no  case  exceed  $1,000.  The  number  allowed  such  leave 
during  any  school  year  shall  not  exceed  fifteen.  From  the  candidates  who 
apply  selection  is  made  according  to  length  of  service,  distribution  according 
to  schools,  and  kinds  of  service. 2 

(4)       SPECIAL  NEGATIVE  CASES. 

These  negative  cases  are  here  included  in  that  they  show  two 
aspects  of  the  feeling  concerning  the  granting  of  leaves  of  absence. 

On  May  8,  1913,  the  Board  of  Education  adopted  a  rule  for 
granting  leaves  of  absence  "only  for  the  purpose  of  study  or  foreign 
travel"  to  teachers  who  had  "completed  seven  years  of  service  in 
the  Public  Schools  of  Detroit"  "not  to  exceed  one  year  in  any 
eight  consecutive  years"  and  to  "  receive  during  such  leave  of  ab- 
sence in  lieu  of  his  regular  salary  $50  per  school  month."  A  further 
provision  was  an  agreement  to  teach  for  three  years  thereafter  or 
to  refund  proportionally  for  the  unexpired  portion  of  the  time. 

"Acting  under  the  authority  of  the  rule  thirteen  teachers  were 
granted  leaves  of  absence  for  the  year  1913-14." 

On  August  22,  1913,  the  corporation  counsel  of  the  city  gave 
his  opinion  that  such  monies  could  not  legally  be  paid  to  these 

1Spalding,  F.  E.,  Salaries,  Efficiency  and  Improvement  of  Teachers,   Newton   Public  Schools> 
Newton,  Mass.,  Jan.,  1908,  pp.  29-31. 

^Bulletin  of  General  Information,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  1915.,  p.  36. 


56  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

teachers  ''because  the  teachers  are  not  required  to  render  the 
service  before  the  money  is  paid." 

On  September  25th  the  Board  voted  to  grant  to  these  teachers 
on  leave  an  increase  for  the  "succeding  year  [only]  a  salary  of  $500 
in  excess  of  that  which  would  otherwise  be  paid  them." 

Inasmuch  however  as  there  seems  to  be  some  question  as  to  the  de- 
sirability of  continuing  sabbatical  leaves  under  such  uncertain  conditions  .  .  . 
the  operation  of  the  rule  ...  is  practically  suspended.  (Detroit,  Mich., 
1913-14,  p.  85  if.) 

Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  reports  as  follows: 

In  view  of  the  increasing  number  of  requests  from  teachers  for  extended 
leave  of  absence,  the  granting  of  which  has  a  more  or  less  detrimental  effect 
upon  the  schools,  the  School  Committee,  at  its  meeting  September  13,  1918, 
voted  that  "It  is  the  sense  of  the  Board  that  no  further  leave  for  extended 
absence  of  teachers  shall  be  granted  unless  for  poor  health  or  for  service  for 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  or  any  of  its  allies."  (Woonsocket, 
R.  I.,  July,  1919,  p.  10.) 

6.  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  DIPLOMA. 
The  following  is  from  Cambridge,  Mass. : 

The  successful  teacher  to-day  must  be  a  student  as  well  as  a  teacher  and 
must  take  active  part  in  the  world's  work  for  which  she  is  striving  to  prepare 
her  pupils. 

Recommended:  (a)  That  the  superintendent  of  schools  be  authorized 
to  complete  his  plans  whereby  the  Cambridge  teachers  shall  be  able  to  take  the 
University  Extension  and  College  Courses  to  be  arranged  for  teachers  and 
offered  to  them  the  coming  year. 

(6)  That  teachers  successfully  completing  one  or  more  of  such  courses 
shall  receive  a  diploma  or  certificate  to  state  that  it  is  given  in  recognition  of  the 
teacher's  voluntary  study  in  preparation  of  her  work,  to  name  the  course  or 
courses  taken,  and  to  bear  the  signature  of  the  chairman  of  the  School  Com- 
mittee, of  the  Superintendent  of  Schools  and  of  the  college  official  or  officials 
under  whose  authority  the  course  or  courses  were  given. 

The  courses  taken  must  be  approved  by  the  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
(Cambridge,  Mass.,  1920,  p.  18.) 

7.  TRAVEL. 

Teachers  are  expected  to  purchase  magazines,  school  journals,  books  in 
their  respective  subjects,  attend  summer  school  occasionally  and  do  some 
traveling.  (Fargo,  N.  D.,  1917-19,  p.  27.) 

The  teachers  have  shown  a  greater  interest  in  the  professional  work  as  is 
indicated  by  their  reading,  travel,  attendance  at  educational  meetings,  visiting 


Present-Day  Agencies  57 

other  schools,  attending  summer  schools  and  in  various  other  ways  keeping 
abreast  of  the  best  educational  thought.   (Canton,  Ohio,  (1)  1911-12,  p.  13.) 

Last  year  we  were  honored  by  having  the  National  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation select  two  of  our  teachers  to  be  in  the  small  group  of  teachers,  who  went 
to  Germany  to  study,  under  the  direction  of  the  Department,  the  conditions 
in  the  German  Schools,  especially  in  the  continuation  schools  of  Munich 
and  Dusseldorf .  Miss  Alice  Joyce  and  Mr.  Julius  Kline  were  the  two  selected 
and  they  came  back  enthusiastic  about  the  continuation  schools.  (Portland, 
Ore.,  1915,  p.  28.) 

(II)  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  REQUIREMENTS. 

1.  LICENSE  PLAN. 

The  plan  of  licensing  teachers  in  the  Indianapolis  Schools  through  exami- 
nations conducted  under  the  authority  of  the  Board  of  School  Commissioners 
provides  a  progressive  schedule  of  professional  training  of  all  teachers  in  the 
elementary  schools.  There  are  seven  grades  of  license  or  certificates:  1st 
Temporary,  2nd  District  School,  3rd  Assistant,  4th  Principal,  5th  High 
School,  6th  Special  License  for  Manual  Instruction,  7th  German. 

District  School  Certificates  are  given  without  examination  to  graduates 
of  the  State  Normal  School,  City  Normal  School  and  all  other  normal  schools 
of  equal  rank  with  these,  such  rank  to  be  determined  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Schools.  A  system  of  grades  for  special  study  prevails  and  constitutes  a  re- 
quirement for  higher  grades  of  license. 

It  is  the  custom  of  the  Superintendent  and  Board  of  School  Commis- 
sioners of  Indianapolis  to  accept  credits  for  work  satisfactorily  done  in  ex- 
tension courses  in  lieu  of  certain  examinations  for  the  assistants  and  prin- 
cipals certificates.  (Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1916,  p.  31.) 

2.  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PROFESSIONAL  STUDY. 

After  reaching  the  maximum  salary,  teachers  are  required  to  take  at  least 
one  professional  course  every  other  year.  (Cincinnati,  O.,  (1)  1914,  p.  54.) 

Another  rule  of  the  Board  requires  every  teacher  to  attend  faithfully  at 
least  every  third  year  during  the  summer  months,  some  professional  or  normal 
school.  (Austin,  Tex.,  1907,  p.  36.) 

In  this  connection  see  also  Portland,  Oregon,  (p.  47.)  and 
Johnstown,  Pa.  (p.  48.)  previously  quoted. 

(III)  EXTENSION  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

1.    TEACHERS'  PROFESSIONAL  LIBRARY. 

(l)      IN  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOLS. 

(a)     By  Board  of  Education. 

In  order  to  further  increase  the  facilities  for  self -improvement  we  were 
able  to  supply  to  the  libraries  of  the  different  schools  a  line  of  professional  books, 


58  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

more  or  less  directly  connected  with  the  subjects  to  be  taught.  These  were 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  principal  to  be  used  by  the  teachers  in  the  building. 
Their  use  in  many  cases  furnished  the  subject  matter  and  material  for  the 
teachers'  meetings  that  were  held  by  the  principals  in  their  respective  buildings. 
(Kansas  City,  Mo.,  1916,  p.  24.) 

(b)     By  Public  Library. 

The  Harrisburg  Public  Library  has  thus  far  established  eleven  branch  li- 
braries in  the  schools.  This  institution  is  co-operating  in  many  ways  in  aiding 
both  teachers  and  pupils  in  their  work,  and,  in  classifying  important  factors 
having  to  do  with  the  improvement  of  teaching,  it  should  not  be  omitted. 
(Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1919,  p.  26-27.) 

(2)  IN  PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 

The  Teachers'  Consulting  Library  was  organized  in  1888,  before  the 
present  Public  Library  was  built.  It  had,  according  to  its  last  report,  a  total 
of  3,500  volumes,  amongst  which  was  a  superior  collection  of  books  on  teaching. 
The  Public  Library  is  rendering  increasingly  valuable  service  to  the  public 
schools.  Its  present  staff,  upon  its  own  initiative,  is  endeavoring  to  establish 
closer  cooperation  with  teachers,  and  has  conducted  conferences  with  the 
teachers  of  the  different  grades  in  ways  of  making  the  library  useful  to  the 
schools  and  for  informing  the  teachers  concerning  the  resources  of  the  library, 
and  has  sent  desirable  collections  of  books  to  the  different  schools  and  in  a 
variety  of  other  ways  is  rendering  very  practical  help  to  the  teachers  and  to 
the  pupils.  In  fact  because  of  the  competency  and  willingness  of  the  Public 
Library  Staff,  there  is  reason  to  think  that  the  Teachers'  Consulting  Library 
itself  will  be  of  greater  use  to  the  teachers  than  it  was  when  it  was  in  possession 
of  the  school  and  had  not  even  one  person  as  a  competent  librarian  in  charge. 
(Trenton,  N.  J.,  1917,  p.  24.) 

(3)  IN  SPECIAL  TEACHERS'  LIBRARY. 

Another  effort  along  these  lines  is  the  establishment  in  the  municipal 
building  for  the  use  of  supervisors,  principals  and  teachers  of  a  professional 
library  and  reading  room.  Books  on  psychology,  history  of  education  and 
other  kindred  subjects,  may  be  obtained  from  the  library;  also  advice  as  to 
courses  of  reading.  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  (1)  1911-13,  p.  25.) 

A  Teachers'  Club  Room,  where  exhibits  of  school  work,  professional 
magazines,  libraries  of  textbooks  and  professional  literature  are  maintained,  is 
open  afternoons,  Tuesday  evenings  and  Saturday  mornings  to  the  teachers  and 
general  public.  (Dayton,  Ohio,  1913-14,  pp.  95-96.) 

(4)  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  INSTITUTE. 

The  library  connected  with  the  Institute  is  open  at  each  of  the  monthly 
meetings,  and  the  librarian  will  be  present  to  exchange  books  for  the  teachers. 
The  books  are  allowed  to  remain  out  one  month. 


Present-Day  Agencies  59 

For  the  greater  convenience  of  the  teachers,  through  the  courtesy  of  the 
Trustees  of  the  Chester  Free  Library,  the  books  of  the  Institute  Library  most 
in  demand  have  been  deposited  in  a  special  case  in  the  Free  Library  Building, 
which  is  open  daily  between  the  hours  of  9  A.  M.  and  9  P.  M.  A  reading  table 
has  also  been  set  aside  for  teachers  and  furnished  by  the  Institute  with  educa- 
tional periodicals.  These  periodicals,  other  than  the  current  numbers,  may 
be  taken  from  the  library  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  the  books.  (Chester, 
Pa.,  1910-11,  p.  35.) 

(5)      DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE. 

The  Pedagogical  Library  connected  with  the  Department  of  Superin- 
tendence now  contains  over  fourteen  thousand  bound  volumes,  besides  current 
copies  of  a  large  number  of  educational  periodicals  and  pamphlets.  These 
are  freely  used  by  the  teachers  as  well  as  by  the  students  in  the  teacher-training 
schools. 

The  library  places  at  the  disposal  of  the  teachers  of  the  city  practically  all 
of  the  more  important  publications  on  educational  topics  as  they  appear  from 
time  to  time,  as  well  as  many  of  the  more  valuable  publications  on  closely 
allied  subjects.  The  extent  to  which  the  library  is  used  is  an  additional  evi- 
dence of  the  progressive  spirit  of  many  of  the  Philadelphia  teachers  and  is 
an  ample  justification  of  the  comparatively  small  amount  spent  from  year  to 
year  for  renewals  and  additions  to  this  library.  (Philadelphia,  Pa.,  1915, 
p.  52.) 

2.     PROFESSIONAL  READING  COURSES. 

(1)  IN  SCHOOLS. 

Every  building  has  its  professional  reading  club  in  which  all  the  teachers 
devote  some  time  each  week  to  professional  reading  of  the  latest  and  best 
books  on  education  and  of  the  current  school  journals.  (Cambridge,  Mass., 
1916,  p.  10.) 

The  teachers  in  each  building  meet  from  time  to  time  to  read  and  discuss 
a  portion  of  some  previously  selected  professional  text.  (North  Adams,  Mass., 
1920,  p.  14.) 

(2)  REQUIRED. 

(a)     By  Superintendent. 

In  order  to  make  sure  that  teachers  studied  I  have  asked  that  some  book 
be  read  during  the  year  and  reviewed,  the  review  to  be  sent  to  me  at  the  end 
of  the  year.  During  the  school  year,  1910-11  two  books  were  assigned  for 
review.  The  past  year  only  one,  namely,  Colgrove's  "Teacher  and  School." 
(Duluth,  Minn.,  1912,  no  paging.) 

(6)     By  Board  of  Education. 

Teachers  in  every  grade  must  do  a  reasonable  amount  of  professional 
reading  and  study  in  order  that  their  schools  may  be  kept  in  touch  with  modern 


60  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

educational  thought  and  up  to  the  progress  of  the  times.   (Canton,  Ohio,  (2) 
1911-12,  p.  61.) 

Our  teachers  are  expected  to  read  annually  a  professional  course  as  out- 
lined either  by  the  State  or  city  school  authorities.  (Dayton,  Ohio,  1913-14, 
p.  95.) 

(3)  SEMI-REQUIRED. 

The  teachers  of  the  Jamestown  schools  evince  their  interest  in  professional 
advancement  by  pursuing  each  year  some  definite  line  of  individual  or  group 
reading.  To  this  end  the  superintendent  recommends  a  book,  or  several 
books,  from  which  a  selection  may  be  made,  and  the  teacher  is  expected  to 
indicate  at  the  first  of  the  year  what  professional  work  she  plans  to  undertake 
and  later  a  report  of  the  work  accomplished  is  required.  While  no  penalties 
are  attached  to  failing  and  no  reward  follows  compliance  with  this  quasi  reg- 
ulation there  is  always  a  gratifying  response  to  this  suggested  course  of 
reading.  (Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  1909-12,  p.  20.) 

(4)  VOLUNTARY. 

(a)     With  Superintendent. 

The  Superintendent  met  a  group  of  teachers  bi-weekly  from  November  to 
April  for  the  study  and  discussion  of  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  under- 
lying all  good  teaching.  Each  teacher  in  the  group  provided  herself  with  the 
following  books:  Dewey's  "Interest  and  Effort,"  Dewey's  "Principles  of 
Moral  Education,"  Dewey's  "How  We  Think,"and  Thorndike's  "Psychology." 
(Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1918-19,  p.  23.) 

The  past  year  we  have  been  making  a  careful  study  of  Dr.  Frank  Mc- 
Murry's  book,  "How  to  Study."  (Olean,  N.  Y.,  1907-1911,  p.  26.) 

(6)     With  Public  Library. 

The  increasing  interest  of  the  teachers  of  Dallas  in  professional  reading  is 
evidenced  by  the  statement  that  the  circulation  of  books  from  the  pedagogical 
section  of  the  Dallas  Public  Library  has  more  than  trebled,  almost  quadrupled, 
during  the  past  year.  (Dallas,  Tex.,  1915,  p.  14.) 

(5)  READING  CIRCLE. 

To  give  opportunity  for  a  further  study  of  the  professional  side  of  teaching, 
preparation  has  been  made  for  the  ensuing  year  for  Reading  Circle  Work. 
(Wheeling,  W.  Va.,  1908,  p.  29.) 

3.     COLLECTIONS  OF  MATERIALS,    CLASS    LABORA- 
TORY AND  EXPERIMENTATION,  AND  THESIS. 
The  means  of  knowledge  extension  that  are  of  interest  here 
are  recognized  in   the   salary   schedule   of  the  Beverly,   Mass., 
teachers,     (see  p.  52.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  61 

In  addition  the  superintendent  reports  that 

Thirty-seven  teachers  made  special  collections  and  outlines  of  school 
subjects  as  aids  to  more  effective  teaching  [and  that]  forty-one  tried  experi- 
ments or  new  methods.  (Beverly,  Mass.,  1917,  p.  12.) 

4.     VISITING  DAYS. 

Kingston,  New  York,  lists  20  cities  visited  and  57  teachers  who 
went  to  see  work  done  by  other  teachers.  (Kingston,  N.  Y.,  1911- 
12,  p.  27.) 

The  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  reports: 

How  to  develop  skill  in  the  teaching  corps  is  quite  a  problem.  The  visit 
of  forty-three  of  our  teachers  to  the  schools  of  Cincinnati  two  years  ago  en- 
thused our  teachers  in  a  way  that  nothing  else  has  done  since  my  connection 
with  the  Raleigh  Schools.  In  Cincinnati  they  saw  some  of  the  best  equipped 
school  rooms  in  the  country  and  likewise  they  witnessed  teaching  under  almost 
ideal  conditions.  (Raleigh,  N.  C.,  1913-14,  p.  17.) 

The  following  is  reported  from  New  York  City: 

A  most  important  part  of  the  training  of  teachers  is  that  received  after 
appointment.  We  have  definitely  recognized  as  an  essential  part  of  such 
training  visitation  by  teachers  and  principals  of  schools  and  classes  other  than 
their  own.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  whole  system  is  benefiting  directly 
from  these  visits,  although  the  individual  principals  and  teachers  may  profit 
from  these  observations.  I  recommend  that  the  Board  of  Superintendents 
be  requested  to  outline  a  plan  by  which  the  reports  of  such  visits  may  be  ana- 
lyzed, so  that  from  time  to  time,  through  a  published  statement,  the  knowl- 
edge resulting  from  these  visits — new  devices,  methods  of  teaching,  and  ad- 
ministration— may  be  used  to  help  the  entire  system.  It  is  worth  considering 
whether  it  be  desirable  that  teachers  and  principals  be  accompanied  by  local 
board  members  or  by  members  of  this  Board,  in  these  visits,  to  see  the  best 
examples  of  methods  of  instruction  and  administration.  (New  York  City, 
N.Y.,  (1)1914,  p.  14  ff.) 

Canton,  Ohio,  reports  the  following  plan: 

Teachers  shall  be  allowed  one  day  or  more  at  the  discretion  of  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Instruction  in  each  school  year  to  visit  other  schools  in  the  city  in 
order  to  observe  the  methods  of  instruction  and  discipline  therein  pursued. 
On  permission  of  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction  this  privilege  shall  extend 
to  other  school  systems  than  our  own.  Application  for  visiting  days  shall  be 
made  to  the  Superintendent  of  Instruction.  Reports  of  such  visits  shall  be 
made  to  the  Superintendent.  (Canton,  Ohio,  (2)  1911-12,  p.  61.) 


62  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

A  further  plan  is  reported  in  Dayton,  Ohio: 

Leaves  of  absence  without  loss  of  pay  are  generously  granted  by  our  Board 
of  Education  for  visiting  other  schools  or  for  educational  trips,  notably  to  at- 
tend the  Department  of  Superintendence  Meetings  at  Mobile  and  Philadelphia. 
(Dayton,  Ohio,  1913-14,  p.  95.) 

5.     MAGAZINES. 

The  magazines  supplied  by  the  Board  have  been  in  use  among  the  teachers, 
and  the  supply  of  pedagogical  books  secured  as  the  nucleus  of  a  teachers' 
library  has  given  a  decided  impetus  to  professional  reading  and  study.  (Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  1915-16,  p.  3.) 

Dallas,  Texas,  reports  an  interesting  variation: 

...  in  many  of  the  schools  groups  of  teachers  have  organized  clubs  for 
subscriptions  to  current  educational  literature,  taking  several  educational  mag- 
azines which  they  circulate  among  the  members  of  the  club.  (Dallas,  Tex., 
1915,  p.  13.) 

(IV)    MISCELLANEOUS  DEVICES. 

1.     SELF-RATING  CARDS  OR  DEVICES. 

In  Meriden,  Conn.,  the  superintendent  outlined  his  ideas  of 

(1)  how  the  principals  might  aid  in  improving  teachers  in  service, 

(2)  how  the  superintendent  himself  might  aid,  and  (3)  how  the 
teachers  might  aid  themselves. 

In  March,  1915  the  outline  was  sent  to  teachers  and  principals  with  the 
request  that  each  check  off  the  items  indicated  and  note  wherein  further  prog- 
ress might  be  made  for  the  good  of  the  schools.  (Meriden,  Conn.,  1916,  p.  21.) 

To  meet  the  need  for  a  clear  understanding  of  the  essential  characteristics 
of  the  good  teacher  the  Superintendent  outlined  his  ideas  on  the  subject  in 
tabular  form.  [Who  is  the  Good  Teacher!  Issued  by  the  School  Department 
of  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1918.]  .  .  .  Pupils  and  teachers  have  been  advised  to 
use  this  pamphlet  as  a  stock  inventory  sheet.  At  least  twice  each  year,  when 
school  opens,  and  again  in  the  middle  of  the  year,  every  teacher  can  profit 
from  a  careful  self-examination  in  which  comparison  is  made  of  realities  as 
against  possibilities.  (Fall  River,  Mass.,  1918,  p.  30) 

Elmira,  N.  Y.,  reports  as  follows: 

An  important  step  forward  was  taken  during  the  year  when  a  system  of 
rating  teachers  was  adopted.  A  card  was  prepared  for  the  purpose. 

The  card  rates  the  teachers  by  the  principals  on  sub-headings 
of  "Physical  Efficiency,"  "Mental  Efficiency/'  "Moral  Efficiency/' 


Present-Day  Agencies  63 

' 'Teaching  Efficiency,"  "Managing  Efficiency,"  and  "General 
Efficiency,"  on  a  system  of  "E-Excellent,  G-Good,  F-Fair, 
P-Poor,  +  indicates  improving,  —  indicates  losing  ground"  and 
"no  entry  indicates  satisfactory." 

Efficiency  records  are  intended  to  help  poor  teachers  become  good  teach- 
ers, good  teachers,  better  teachers,  and  the  better  teachers,  best  teachers. 
(Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1915-16,  p.  21.) 

2.     EXCHANGE  OF  TEACHERS. 

Two  fairly  recent  experiences  in  administering  this  device  are 
given  below,  one  as  illustrative  of  administrative  difficulties,  and 
the  other  as  illustrative  of  successful  operation. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Committee  on  Instruction  held  on  Wednesday  evening, 
April  27,  1921,  the  policy  of  the  Superintendent  on  the  exchange  of  teachers,  as 
presented  in  the  following  recommendation,  was  concurred  in : 

The  Superintendent  has  recently  received  several  requests  from  ele- 
mentary teachers  in  California  for  exchange  with  teachers  in  the  Newark 
School  System. 

Several  reasons  are  given  for  making  the  problem  "vexatious" 
such  as  the  "matter  of  certification,  payment  of  salaries,  differences 
of  salaries  and  the  effect  of  a  year's  absence  on  the  granting  of  the 
state  pension  for  teachers."  It  was  a  legal  opinion  that  there  could 
be  no  credit  given  toward  increase  of  salary  for  such  teachers 
who  went  away,  etc. 

In  view  of  the  above,  the  Superintendent  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  not 
advisable  for  the  Board  to  arrange  for  the  formal  exchange  of  teachers  in  the 
elementary  grades.1 

Last  year  we  tried  the  experiment  of  exchange  of  teachers.  Miss  Wake- 
man  of  the  Washington  High  School  was  exchanged  with  Miss  Messer  of 
Springfield,  Massachusetts.  Miss  Wakeman  greatly  enjoyed  the  experience 
and  came  back  to  us  with  many  suggestions.  Miss  Messer,  I  understand, 
also  found  the  plan  satisfactory',  and  thought  she  gained  something  for  her  home 
schools.  This  year  we  have  extended  the  idea,  and  have  endeavored  to  ex- 
change a  number  of  teachers  with  far  eastern  cities.  Those  selected  to  go  are 
Miss  Hallie  Thomas  of  Kenton  School,  Miss  Rozene  Epple  of  Eliot  School, 
Miss  Nora  B.  Green  of  Ladd  School,  and  Miss  Maybelle  E.  Ross  of  Holman 
School.  We  hope  that  this  plan  will  stimulate  an  interest  on  the  part  of  all 
teachers  to  be  eligible  for  exchange,  and  that  it  will  bring  to  us  the  best  ideas 
from  the  cities  where  our  people  teach.  (Portland,  Ore.,  1915,  p.  28.) 

1  Newark  School  Bulletin  Newark,  N.  J.,  Vol.  I,  No.  9,  May,  1921,  p.  144., 


64  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

3.  IMPROVING  THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

The  work  done  by  the  principals  and  experienced  teachers  last  summer  in 
revising  the  course  of  study,  in  the  demands  it  made  upon  those  who  took 
part,  and  benefits  to  the  schools,  was  fully  equal  to  two  weeks  of  half  day 
institute.  Comparatively  few  of  the  whole  teaching  force  took  part  in  this 
revision  of  the  course  of  study,  most  of  them  only  for  a  few  days.  However, 
the  principals  worked  for  a  longer  time,  and  especially  those  who  remained  in 
the  city,  and  assisted  me  to  put  the  course  in  final  shape  for  the  printer.  (Mem- 
phis, Tenn.,  1911-12,  p.  36.) 

This  year  we  undertook  to  revise  the  course  in  certain  subjects,  with  the 
result  that  at  the  present  moment  we  have  tentative  courses  in  citizenship, 
English,  and  arithmetic  for  all  classes.  Believing  in  the  principle  of  democ- 
racy, and  taking  into  consideration  the  talent  that  we  have  in  our  various 
grades,  the  superintendent  appointed  a  committee  of  three  from  among  the 
principals  to  have  general  charge  of  each  course.  Sub-committees  of  three 
teachers  from  each  grade  in  each  subject  were  appointed  to  prepare  the  pre- 
liminary outlines,  the  idea  being  to  assemble  the  reports  and  suggestions  filed 
by  each  committee,  and  to  have  the  general  committee  edit  the  whole  outline. 
(La  Crosse,  Wis.,  1918,  p.  21.) 

One  very  important  work  begun  during  the  year  was  the  simplification 
and  revision  of  the  course  of  study.  A  committee  of  teachers  was  appointed 
in  each  grade.  These  committees  were  to  make  suggestions  for  the  revision 
of  the  work  of  their  respective  grades.  Frequent  conferences  were  held  with 
the  superintendent.  The  members  of  the  committees  have  displayed  a  very 
commendable  spirit  in  this  work.  The  preliminary  reports  were  handed  in 
at  the  close  of  school.  The  changes  suggested  were  not  as  numerous  as  one 
might  expect.  These  reports  on  the  whole  show  quite  a  general  satisfaction 
with  the  course  of  study  as  it  now  stands,  although  some  very  valuable  sug- 
gestions have  been  offered.  The  tendency  toward  elimination  and  simplifi- 
cation was  slight.  That  feature  will  doubtless  be  given  greater  emphasis  in 
subsequent  reports.  (Superior,  Wis.,  1912-13,  p.  27.) 

4.  SCHOOL  EXHIBITS. 
Topeka,  Kansas,  reports: 

Not  only  do  the  improvements  in  the  course  of  study  afford  tangible 
evidence  of  the  progressive  work  done  by  the  teaching  staff,  but  the  annual 
school  exhibits  evidence  the  same.  In  May,  1914  these  exhibits  were  held 
in  each  building.  ...  In  May,  1915  corresponding  exhibits  were  held  in 
the  various  buildings,  and  following  this  a  central  exhibit  of  the  best  work  from 
all  the  schools  was  held.  .  .  . 

There  were  two  phases: 

First,  the  usual  static  exhibit  of  school  work  in  language,  history,  geogra- 
phy, sewing,  cooking,  manual  training,  drawing,  writing,  and  other  forms  of 
work  which  lend  themselves  to  this  type  of  exhibition. 


Present-Day  Agencies  65 

A  second  feature  was  a  living  exhibit,  consisting  of  music,  dramatization, 
and  physical  education  exercises.  (Topeka,  Kan.,  1914-15,  p.  23  ff.) 

A  second  form  of  the  school  exhibit  is  reported  from  Trenton, 
New  Jersey. 

The  New  Jersey  State  Library  Commission  placed  an  exhibition  of  chil- 
dren's books,  pictures,  and  reading  lists  in  the  Carroll  Robbins  School  for  ten 
days,  which  was  most  interesting  and  instructive  to  the  children  and  to  teachers 
and  was  examined  by  many  visiting  teachers  and  members  of  the  city  library 
staff,  as  well  as  by  the  pupils  of  the  training  school  and  the  Normal  School. 
(Trenton,  N.  J.,  1916,  p.  30.) 

5.     TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS. 

.  .  .  it  is  the  judgment  of  the  superintendent  that  in  the  hands  of  a 
teacher  of  good  judgment  they  can  be  used  to  great  advantage  to  clear  up 
questions,  which  no  doubt  exist  in  the  minds  of  thoughtful  instructors,  and  I 
sincerely  hope  to  see  them  used  more  frequently  during  the  coming  year. 
(La  Crosse,  Wis.,  1918,  p.  23.) 

The  use  of  tests  and  measurements  in  Detroit  is  of  peculiar 
interest  here.  It  is  described  in  connection  with  the  data  concern- 
ing professional  supervision,  (see  p.  70.) 

6.     PROPOSAL  FOR  TWELVE  MONTHS'  SALARY. 

I  am  more  particularly  favorable  to  placing  all  salaries  on  a  twelve  months' 
basis  so  that  a  teacher  may  not  feel  compelled  to  work  in  her  vacation  on  any 
subject  except  those  relating  to  her  profession.  If  the  schools  were  organized 
on  the  basis  of  four  terms  of  twelve  weeks  each,  each  teacher  could  be 
engaged  by  the  year  and  be  required  to  teach  three  out  of  four  terms.  Her 
fourth  term  or  vacation,  could  be  used  for  recreation,  travel  and  study. 
(Richmond,  Va.,  1914,  p.  16.) 

IV.    PROFESSIONAL  SUPERVISION. 

(I)     PERSONAL  INTERVIEWS. 

These  are  mentioned  by  several  superintendents  as  being 
valuable  for  several  reasons.  They  may  be  used 

to  develop  each  and  every  teacher  to  her  greatest  efficiency.     (Moline,  111., 
1916,  p.  29.) 

Conferences  were  held  weekly  with  each  individual  teacher  in  order  that 
she  might  receive  as  much  help  as  possible  with  her  particular  problem.  (Fall 
River,  Mass.,  1917,  p.  65.) 


66  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  practice  in  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  is  described  as  follows: 

Special  attention  and  persistent  effort  have  been  devoted  to  the  improve- 
ment of  class-room  instruction.  The  work  of  teachers  was  observed  as  fre- 
quently as  possible,  suggestions  and  directions  were  given,  and  many  formal 
conferences  with  individual  teachers  and  small  groups  of  teachers  were  held 
to  discuss  conditions  and  devise  plans  and  methods  for  the  solution  of  par- 
ticular problems.  (Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1915-16,  p.  22.) 

Elmira,  N.  Y.,  mentions  personal  interviews  as  follows: 

After  a  teacher  is  in  the  system  every  effort  should  be  made  to  help  her 
succeed.  There  are  a  number  of  ways  of  doing  this.  Teachers'  meetings, 
visits,  directed  reading,  and  personal  interviews  should  be  employed  for  the 
purpose.  (Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1915-16,  p.  20.) 

In  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  supervisors  have  announced  office 
hours,  at  least  once  a  week  for  one  and  one  quarter  hours,  for  con- 
sultation and  interviews  with  teachers.1 

(II)    PROFESSIONAL  SUPERVISION. 

As  such  several  places  report  special  efforts  to  make  their  super- 
vision effective  and  not  merely  inspectorial.  While  this  may  be  a 
general  and  almost  universal  purpose,  at  the  present  time  few 
superintendents  specifically  mention  this  as  an  important  phase  in 
the  improvement  of  their  teachers  in  service.  Some  of  the  more 
definite  reports  are  given  below. 

Nothing  is  more  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  school  than  the  constant  im- 
provement of  the  teachers  in  service.  To  secure  this  improvement  is  the 
endeavor  of  the  supervisory  officers.  This  is  done  through  personal  help, 
through  conferences  with  small  groups,  and  through  special  meetings  for  the 
discussion  of  important  educational  problems.  (Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1916,p.34.) 

Teachers  generally  are  learning  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  profes- 
sional improvement.  The  fine  spirit  with  which  so  many  of  our  teachers  call 
upon  the  supervisors  for  help  is  one  evidence  of  growing  interest.  (Fall  River, 
Mass.,  1918,  p.  30.) 

Brief  mention  has  just  been  made  of  the  fact  that  a  supervisor  of  primary 
methods  is  now  employed  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  teachers  of  the  first 
three  grades  to  get  the  greatest  possible  returns  from  their  efforts.  I  would 
suggest  and  recommend  that,  with  the  opening  of  new  buildings  now  under 
construction,  a  second  supervisor  of  methods  be  engaged  to  work  with  the 
teachers  above  the  third  grade.  No  expenditure  of  the  city  would  bring  better 
and  more  prompt  returns.  (Quincy,  Mass.,  1916,  p.  14.) 

'Supt.  Kept,  in  Rept.  Dept.  of  Public  Inst.,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  October,  1913,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  p.  7. 


Present-Day  Agencies  67 

Supervision  Reports.  Each  Principal,  the  Supervisor  of  Instruction,  and 
tjie  Superintendent  makes  a  brief  written  report  of  each  class-room  visit  of 
fifteen  minutes  or  more  in  length.  These  reports  are  used  to  help  improve  the 
quality  of  the  teaching  in  the  schools.  The  reports  are  often  discussed  with 
the  teachers. 

Supervision  Standards  .  .  .  "Standards  and  Ideals"  [used  in]  judging 
the  quality  of  the  teaching  service  .  .  .  are  the  result  of  cooperative  study 
by  Principals,  Supervisor  and  Superintendent.  (Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1917,  p.  11.) 

A  report  from  Cleveland,  Ohio,  is  of  interest  here  with  respect 
to  the  method  of  supervision: 

During  the  past  three  years  I  have  striven  to  set  up  among  teachers  and 
principals  some  definite  standards  for  judging  and  directing  class-room  work. 
These  are  commonly  known  among  educators  as  the  McMurry  Standards, 
and  are  as  follows : 

School  and  class-room  work  are  to  be  judged: 

1.  By  the  extent  to  which  they  are  connected  with  life.     (Life 
Problems.) 

2.  By  the  extent  to  which  they  provide  for  initiative  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.     (Individuality.) 

3.  By  the  extent  to  which  they  provide  for  organization  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

4.  By  the  extent  to  which  they  provide  the  opportunity  for  judging 
relative  values. 

5.  By  the  extent  to  which  they  afford  the  opportunity  for  using 
content  learned. 

Early  in  September,  1912,  I  called  a  meeting  of  my  principals  and  super- 
visors, at  which  each  was  given  a  typewritten  copy  of  these  standards.  We 
proceeded  to  discuss  the  same  and  to  point  out  some  definite  directions  as  to 
ways  and  means  of  applying  these  principles  to  the  class-room  instruction. 

The  particular  subject  selected  to  which  to  apply  these  standards  was 
reading  in  the  first  grade.  Reading  was  chosen  because  most  of  our  primary 
teachers  were  starting  to  use  a  new  method  reader,  and  it  seemed  an  opportune 
time  to  introduce  some  new  standards  by  which  to  judge  their  work.  (Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  1914-15,  p.  20.) 

In  a  mimeographed  set  of  sheets  from  the  Department  of  In- 
struction, Teacher  Training  and  Research,  to  the  District  Principal 
of  the  Detroit  Schools,  dated  December,  13  1921,  the  following 
quotations  are  of  interest  as  showing  the  trend  which  supervision 
is  taking  in  that  city. 

Attached  hereto  is  a  copy  of  the  "Tentative  Formulation  of  the  Ultimate 
Duties  of  General  Supervisors  of  Instruction  in  a  [n]  Ideal  School  System,  and 
of  their  Relation  to  Administrative  Officers"  as  stated  last  year.  Each  prin- 
cipal and  supervisor  should  re-read  this  statement  of  general  plan.  From  the 


68  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

discussion  with  district  principals,  Mr.  Courtis  and  supervisors,  there  seems  to 
be  no  disposition  to  question  the  general  policy,  but  rather  to  ask  for  informa- 
tion concerning  the  program  or  steps  by  which  the  general  plan  is  to  be  put  into 
effect. 

The  transition  to  the  present  policy  should  be  a  gradual  one  rather  than 
an  abrupt  break  with  the  past.  From  time  to  time  additional  subjects  should 
be  formally  transferred  from  the  older  method  of  supervision  to  the  present 
plan.  Such  a  transfer  should  come  only  when  the  supervisor  concerned  is 
able  to  furnish  the  principal  with  adequate  standards  for  the  judging  of  in- 
struction in  that  particular  subject. 

Up  to  date  a  formal  transfer  from  the  older  method  has  taken  place  in  one 
subject — handwriting.  The  supervisor  of  handwriting  and  the  principals 
should  now  adhere  to  the  present  policy  of  supervision  in  this  subject.  A 
similar  transfer  will  take  place  in  the  near  future  in  the  case  of  spelling  and  of 
arithmetic  in  certain  grades.  Other  subjects  will  follow. 

In  general  where  no  formal  transfer  has  taken  place  the  former  method 
of  supervision  will  prevail. 

However,  aside  from  the  above  statement  of  program  the  acceptance  of 
the  present  policy  necessitates  certain  changes  which  affect  all  supervision; 
announcements,  calls  for  teachers'  meetings,  instructional  materials,  etc.,  are 
no  longer  sent  directly  to  teachers  but  transmitted  through  the  regular  ad- 
ministrative channel;  superintendent  to  district  principal;  district  principal 
to  principal,  and  principal  to  teacher.  Although  principals  are  not  directly 
responsible  for  the  instructional  outcome  of  such  materials  as  are  sent  out  in 
subjects  in  which  there  has  been  no  formal  transfer  to  the  present  policy,  they 
should  do  everything  within  their  power  to  transmit  and  interpret  to  the  best 
of  their  ability  such  materials  and  instructions. 

Supervisors  will  to  an  increasing  degree  keep  principals  informed  of  their 
supervisory  activities  and  as  far  as  possible  work  through  the  principal  instead 
of  directly  with  the  teacher  until  it  has  been  demonstrated  in  what  subjects 
and  in  what  detail  supervision  by  the  principal  is  practical. 

The  means  of  teacher-training  are : 

(a)     Courses  of  study  and  curricula. 

(6)     Special  bulletins  of  instructions,  type  lessons,  exhibitions,  etc. 

(c)  Meetings  with  groups  of  teachers  for  demonstration  lessons, 
instruction,  etc. 

(d)  Personal  visits  to  teachers  for  diagnosis,  instruction,  demon- 
stration, etc. 

(e)  Personal  conferences  with  teachers  to  give  assistance. 

A  supervisor  should  feel  responsible  for  knowing  the  general  condition  of 
instruction  throughout  the  city  and  for  locating  the  precise  causes  of  success 
or  failure,  but  has  no  responsibility  whatsoever  for  the  success  or  failure  of  a 
particular  teacher.  His  teacher-training  work  with  groups  or  with  individuals, 
should  always  be  of  the  nature  of  rendering  a  service.  It  should  be  under- 
taken only  on  the  request  of  administrative  officers  approved  by  the  general 
instructional  officer  in  charge. 


Present-Day  Agencies  69 

By  inspection  is  meant  the  survey  of  society,  the  school  system,  the  equip- 
ment, the  means  of  instruction,  the  service,  the  personnel,  the  pupils,  or  any 
other  items  or  details  to  ascertain  how  efficiently  instruction  is  being  given. 
Such  inspection,  when  initiated  by  a  supervisor,  shall  have  for  its  purpose 
the  benefit  of  the  supervisor  and  not  the  person  or  condition  inspected.  On  a 
visit  of  inspection  a  supervisor  shall  make  no  critical  comment  except  on  the 
specific  request  of  the  principal  or  teacher,  and  shall  give  teacher-training  as- 
sistance only  when  specifically  asked  to  do  so,  and  then  only  in  the  achieve- 
ment of  objectives  officially  approved  by  the  administration. 

In  other  words,  the  idea  in  the  minds  of  many  teachers  that  they  are  re- 
sponsible to  supervisors  should  have  no  foundation  in  the  comments  or  other 
behavior  of  supervisors.  For  methods,  content,  ground  covered,  and  all  other 
details  of  instruction  teachers  are  responsible  to  their  administrative  super- 
visors only,  and  only  for  such  plans  and  standards  of  instruction  as  have  been 
officially  adopted.  Both  principals  and  supervisors  should  not  judge  teachers 
except  in  terms  of  adopted  standards.  If  a  supervisor  observes  a  departure 
from  the  established  procedure  which  seems  to  him  either  desirable  or  un- 
desirable he  should  report  it  to  the  Director  of  Instruction  as  a  fact  but  thq 
supervisor  has  no  authority  to  order  its  correction  and  nothing  should  be  said 
or  done  by  the  supervisor  to  make  the  teacher  feel  that  the  supervisor  either 
approves  or  disapproves,  or  that  his  approval  or  disapproval  would  have  any 
influence  in  determining  the  standing  of  the  teacher. 

It  cannot  be  too  much  emphasized  that  the  supervisor's  own  visits  to 
schools  are  for  his  own  education  and  benefit.  He  must  be  familiar  with  the 
workings  of  the  system  by  personal  observation.  He  must  serve  to  cumulate 
and  integrate  the  best  work  and  thought  of  the  system.  He  can  draw  upon 
the  assistance  and  guidance  of  the  administrative  machinery,  but  he  must  not 
exercise  executive  control  in  any  way. 

A  TENTATIVE  FORMULATION  OF  THE   ULTIMATE  DUTIES  OF 

GENERAL  SUPERVISORS  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  AN  IDEAL 

SCHOOL   SYSTEM,   AND   OF   THEIR   RELATIONS 

TO  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICERS. 

DEFINITION. 

A  general  supervisor  of  instruction  is  an  individual  who  possesses  expert 
knowledge  of  the  subject  matter  and  methods  of  teaching  of  one  or  more  re- 
lated divisions  of  school  room  activities,  and  who  has  been  given  general 
oversight  of  the  instruction  within  the  field  of  his  expert  knowledge. 

DuTiEsr 

In  general  the  function  of  a  supervisor  of  instruction  is  to  do  whatever 
creative,  constructive  thinking  within  his  field  is  essential  to  the  vitality  and 
progress  of  the  school  system  as  a  whole.  In  other  words,  his  chief  duty  is 
to  be,  and  to  remain  expert  in  his  particular  line.  He  should  know  more  about 
the  general  conditions  of  instruction  within  his  special  field  than  any  one  else 
in  the  S3^stem,  and  be  more  capable  of  solving  problems  peculiar  to  his  field. 


70  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  specific  functions  of  a  supervisor  of  instruction  are  three :  research, 
teacher-training  and  inspection.  Of  these  research  is  the  basic  function.  The 
other  two  are  made  necessary  by  the  nature  of  research  work  and  the  purposes 
from  which  it  is  undertaken. 

By  research  is  meant  the  discovery  and  active  experimental  solution  of 
current  problems  in  subject-matter  and  instruction,  or  in  their  administration 
in  the  class-room.  That  is,  from  the  point  of  view  of  its  effect  upon  the  school 
system  as  a  whole,  supervision  is  the  agency  charged  with  (1)  the  maintenance 
of  the  existing  level  of  instruction,  (2)  the  conservation  of  advances  made  by 
individual  teachers  or  other  agents,  and  (3)  the  organization  of  systematic 
attempts  to  improve  the  efficiency  of  instruction. 

The  phases  of  research  are : 

(a)  The  discovery  of  existing  defects.  (Possible  items  of  improve- 
ment.) 

(6)  The  search  for  suggestions  of  improved  methods  in  the  work  of 
agents  in  our  own  or  in  other  systems. 

(c)  The  formulation  of  a  working  plan  for  improvement. 

(d)  The  trial  of  the  plan  under  experimental  conditions  with  se- 
lection of  the  successful  solution  on  the  basis  of  measured  results. 

(e)  The  formulation  of  specific  plans  for  putting  the  new  method 
into  operation  and  of  standards,  tests,  etc.,  for  measuring  its  effects. 

At  each  stage  of  the  research  work,  the  plans  of  a  supervisor  are  to  be 
submitted  through  regular  channels  to  administrative  officers  for  approval 
and  assistance.  With  the  sale  of  the  final  plan  and  standards  to  the  proper 
administrative  officer,  the  responsibility  of  the  supervisor  ends.  He  has  no 
responsibility  for  putting  the  plan  into  operation,  except  to  analyze  and  report 
upon  the  results  of  such  tests  as  may  be  given  to  check  how  well  the  work  is 
being  done. 

By  teacher-training  is  meant  rendering  assistance  to  administrative  officers 
who  attempt  to  carry  out  the  plans  adopted  by  the  administration  but  fail  to 
achieve  the  proper  standards.  * 

(III)     HELPING  TEACHER. 

The  plan  used  in  Maine  is  reported  in  the  following : 

The  difficulties  of  program  making,  combination  of  classes,  adaptation  of 
the  course  of  study  to  the  condition  of  the  school,  physical  education,  methods 
of  instruction,  sanitation,  and  social  work  are  her  specialties.  [The  Helping 
Teacher.]  She  works  six  days  a  week.  Her  school  is  closed  on  Monday  and 
open  on  Saturday.  On  the  first  of  these  days  she  visits  and  assists  the  other 
rural  teachers  in  their  work,  on  the  second  of  these  days  the  other  rural  teachers 
visit  her  school  to  learn  by  observation  the  best  methods  of  procedure.  (Lewis- 
ton,  Me.,  1919-20,  p.  12.) 

1Detroit,  Mich.,  Communication  to  District   Principals,  by  the  Department   of   Instruction, 
Teacher  Training  and  Research.     Dated,  December,  13,  1921. 


Present-Day  Agencies  71 

(IV)     DEMONSTRATION  LESSONS. 

Demonstration  lessons  conducted  by  able  teachers  in  the  system  or  by  the 
supervisor  followed  by  criticism  and  the  application  of  the  principles  of  the 
technique  of  teaching  [are  held  for  the  purpose  of  helping]  each  teacher  to 
render  the  highest  type  of  teaching  service  of  which  she  is  capable.  (Duluth, 
Minn.,  1918,  p.  3.) 

Once  or  twice  each  year  the  teachers  of  each  of  the  several  grades  spend 
the  last  hour  of  the  afternoon  session  for  several  successive  days  observing  class 
demonstrations  by  fellow  teachers  of  the  same  grade  who  have  done  superior 
work  in  the  subject  demonstrated.  (Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y.,  1917,  p.  12.) 

Meetings  of  our  primary  teachers  were  held  frequently  throughout  the 
year.  Standards  and  principles  were  discussed.  At  most  of  these  meetings 
some  teacher  with  her  class  was  present  to  illustrate  how  those  standards  and 
principles  were  applied.  This  proved  to  be  most  helpful.  (Cleveland,  Ohio, 
(2)  1914-15,  p.  22.) 

V.     WORK  WITH  NEW  TEACHERS. 

In  this  section  it  is  attempted  to  give  a  characterization  of  the 
work  that  is  being  done  with  new  teachers.  Some  of  it  is  out  of 
date  in  the  particular  locality  from  which  it  is  reported.  Part  of  it, 
as  here  reported,  may  not  do  some  particular  place  the  justice  it 
deserves.  It  has  nevertheless  been  deemed  wise  to  report  the 
sources  of  each  type  illustrated. 

(I)     TYPES. 

1.    ASSISTING  TEACHERS. 

The  following,  from  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  is  a  true  type  of 
work  of  in-service  character,  assuming  that  some  pre-service  train- 
ing is  the  prerequisite  for  that  kind  of  work: 

In  May,  1916,  the  superintendent  and  assistant  superintendent  of 
schools  shall  select  not  more  than  six  Lynn  girls,  members  of  the  graduating 
classes  in  the  Normal  Schools  of  the  state,  or  the  kindergarten  training  schools, 
who  shall  be  offered  positions  as  assistants  in  the  Lynn  schools,  and  no  other 
inexperienced  teachers  shall  be  appointed.  The  salary  of  such  assistants  shall 
be  $25  a  month;  they  shall  serve  as  far  as  practicable  as  substitutes  for  regular 
teachers  absent  because  of  illness  or  to  visit  and  study  other  schools. 

When  not  thus  employed  they  shall  assist  regular  teachers  in  the  class- 
rooms to  which  they  may  be  assigned  by  the  superintendent,  doing  a  desig- 
nated amount  of  class  teaching  under  the  supervision  and  criticism  of  the 
teacher. 

After  a  year  of  such  service  those  assistants  who  have  established  their 
fitness  shall  constitute  a  preferred  list  from  which  regular  appointments  for 
teaching  positions  may  be  made.  (Lynn,  Mass.,  1915,  pp.  16-17.) 


72  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  two  following  plans,  while  technically  training  teachers 
in  service  are  really  pre-service  extensions: 

The  assistant  teachers  have  for  the  most  part  been  greatly  interested  in 
the  work,  and  the  training  they  have  received  will  be  beneficial  not  only  to 
them  but  to  the  schools.  Almost  all  of  the  assistant  teachers  were  given  regu- 
lar positions  before  the  year  closed.  These  took  the  place  of  the  regular 
teachers  who  resigned  or  were  given  charge  of  the  additional  rooms  opened 
during  the  year.  The  fact  that  these  had  training  relieved  the  situation  con- 
siderably as  it  is  difficult  to  secure  good  teachers  during  the  school  year  from 
other  cities. 

The  plan  adopted  in  June  of  paying  the  assistants  one  dollar  per  day  will 
make  it  necessary  to  appoint  them  to  rooms  in  which  the  number  of  pupils 
is  above  the  average.  However  this  will  not  prohibit  the  placing  of  young 
teachers  who  desire  to  learn  the  work  and  who  show  exceptional  ability.  (Can- 
ton, Ohio,  (1)  1911-12,  pp.  12-13.) 

The  Cincinnati  plan  follows : 

Briefly  the  plan  [for  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  of  teacher-training]  purposes 
to  have  the  fourth  and  fifth  year  University  students  who  are  enrolled  in  the 
College  for  Teachers  give  half  time  to  actual  teaching,  under  the  careful  super- 
vision of  supervising  (cooperating)  teachers,  selected  because  of  their  demon- 
strated success  as  teachers  and  of  their  ability  to  inspire  and  direct  the  work  of 
young  teachers  in  training.  Each  cooperating  teacher  has  two  classes  of  the 
same  grade  to  which  are  assigned  four  student-teachers.  Two  teach  in  charge 
of  the  respective  classes  during  the  morning  and  return  to  the  University  for 
work  in  the  afternoon ;  two  who  have  been  attending  the  University  during  the 
forenoon  take  charge  of  the  same  classes  during  the  afternoon.  If  they  are 
fourth -year  undergraduate  students,  they  teach  without  pay  as  an  essential 
part  of  their  training.  If  they  are  fourth-year  students  who  have  received 
the  A.  B.  or  B.  S.  degree,  and  are  taking  the  fifth  year  largely  in  the  College 
for  Teachers,  they  are  to  receive  one-half  the  annual  salary  of  a  beginning  teach- 
er and  upon  the  first  year  of  full  appointment  will  receive  the  second  year's 
salary.  This  arrangement  was  made  to  encourage  as  many  teachers  as  possible 
to  take  five  years  of  preparation  for  the  work  of  teaching,  a  full  college  course 
with  the  required  professional  training  for  teaching  in  addition,  though  it  would 
be  desirable  that  the  professional  work  should  not  all  be  left  for  the  fifth  year. 
(Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1917,  p.  39  ff.) 

2.    BUILDING  ASSISTANTS. 

The  period  immediately  following  professional  preparation  and  preceding 
permanent  appointment  is  a  critical  period  in  the  life  of  the  inexperienced 
teacher.  It  is  here  that  she  begins  her  independent  work,  the  responsibility 
for  the  outcome  of  which  she  must  now  assume.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that 
the  conditions  under  which  she  works  should  be  such  as  to  give  a  fair  test  of 
her  powers.  It  is  furthermore  essential  that  they  should  have  wise  and  sym- 


Present-Day  Agencies  73 

pathetic  counsel.  The  provision  adopted  by  the  Board  shortly  after  the 
opening  of  school  last  September  by  which  one  of  these  inexperienced  teachers 
is  placed  in  each  grammar  school  so  far  as  possible,  is  designed  to  meet  these 
two  conditions.  The  stay  in  one  school  during  this  trial  period  enables  such 
a  teacher  to  work  in  an  environment  with  which  she  can  become  reasonably 
familiar.  At  least  one-half  of  her  time  must  be  spent  in  independent  teaching, 
and  the  remainder  may  be  spent  in  such  administrative  duties  as  the  principal 
may  assign.  Thus  every  act  becomes  for  her  educative,  since  even  her  admin- 
istrative and  clerical  duties  embrace  precisely  those  which  she  will  have  to 
meet  as  an  independent  grade  teacher.  She  is  also  working  under  such  close 
direction  of  the  principal  that  counsel  and  guidance  can  easily  and  naturally  be 
given.  As  a  teacher-training  provision  this  promises  to  be  extremely  helpful. 
(Rochester,  N.  Y.,  (2)  1911-13,  p.  122  ff.) 

The  following  is  a  form  of  the  same  character,  but  is,  however, 
of  the  pre-service  type : 

Our  system  of  introducing  new  teachers  as  assistants  to  the  principals, 
while  faulty  in  some  respects,  has  nevertheless  much  to  commend  it.  What- 
ever may  be  said  of  its  shortcomings,  it  affords  a  most  excellent  training  for 
the  new  teachers  for  the  schools,  and  by  the  time  they  become  regular  grade 
teachers,  they  are  usually  very  successful  from  the  start.  (Savannah,  Ga., 
1911,  p.  17.) 

3.    APPRENTICE  TEACHERS. 

Somerville  graduates  of  state  normal  schools  or  of  college  courses  in  edu- 
cation are  given  an  opportunity  to  get  one  year's  training  as  an  apprentice 
teacher,  after  graduation,  in  order  to  qualify  for  a  permanent  position.  At  the 
end  of  this  period  they  are  eligible  for  consideration  with  all  others  for  ap- 
pointment to  any  existing  vacancy.  (Somerville,  Mass.,  1918-19,  p.  7.) 

A  pre-service  type  of  the  apprentice  teacher  system  is  reported 
from  Memphis,  Tennessee: 

The  dozen  high  school  graduates  who  constituted  the  training  class  during 
regular  school  hours  did  good  work ;  but  they  were  impatient  to  begin  drawing 
a  salary  as  an  aid.  As  high  school  graduates  have  in  the  past  been  elected 
to  the  position  of  aid  without  being  required  to  make  a  study  of  the  course  of 
study  with  a  view  of  teaching  it,  it  will  take  considerable  time  to  reconcile 
them  to  this  very  necessary  preparation.  During  the  year  just  closed  the 
members  of  the  training  class  did  not  receive,  on  an  average,  more  than  two 
months  professional  training  before  being  called  upon  to  serve  as  aids. 
This,  however,  is  an  encouraging  beginning.  (Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12, 
pp.  38-40.) 


74  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

4.     CADET  TEACHERS. 

The  New  Bedford  plan,  here  presented,  is  an  illustration  of 
in-service  improvement : 

The  present  plan  of  admitting  New  Bedford  young  ladies  to  the  teaching 
corps  following  one  year  of  teaching  experience  after  graduation  from  Normal 
School  is  not  satisfactory.  Upon  their  graduation  from  normal  school  all 
seem  to  aim  to  get  positions  in  the  country  schools  nearby  in  order  that  they 
may  live  near  home.  This  plan  serves  our  neighbors  admirably  but  deprives 
us  of  the  rich  experience  which  comes  from  close  supervision  in  a  graded  school 
system.  The  young  teacher  needs  guidance  and  help,  and  plenty  of  it,  and 
in  order  to  gain  this  end  I  present  the  following  plan  for  your  consideration. 

New  Bedford  students  who  graduate  from  a  recognized  normal  school 
and  who  have  maintained  an  average  B  record  during  their  course  may  be 
appointed  as  cadet  teachers  for  one  term  at  a  salary  at  the  rate  of  seven  hun- 
dred and  fifty  dollars  per  annum .  If  their  work  warrants  it  they  may  be  elected 
for  an  additional  term  at  the  same  rate  of  pay.  The  cadet  teachers  shall  work 
under  the  direction  of  a  helping  teacher  who  shall  receive  in  addition  to  her 
regular  stipend  salary  at  the  rate  of  two  hundred  dollars  per  annum,  each  of  said 
teachers  to  have  charge  of  two  cadets  and  be  responsible  for  the  discipline  and 
instruction  of  the  rooms  in  which  the  cadets  are  placed.  I  believe  that  the 
plan  outlined  above  will  give  us  better  teachers  than  the  present  plan,  and  our 
new  teachers  will  go  to  their  first  assignments  with  a  much  broader  training 
and  better  understanding  of  what  is  expected  of  them  in  New  Bedford.  (New 
Bedford,  Mass.,  1920,  p.  40.) 

A  survey  of  Chicago  schools  "by  members  of  the  teaching 
force  under  the  direction  of  Superintendent  Young  and  her  staff" 
as  reported  in  the  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  of  Chicago,  III., 
for  1914,  is  commented  on  as  follows  by  Principal  Owen  of  the 
Normal  School,  in  the  report  of  the  following  year. 

The  report  discusses  the  period  of  cadetship.  [See  pp.  210,  211,  212. 
Report  of  1914.]  Theoretically  a  graduate  of  the  Chicago  Normal  School  is 
assigned  on  graduation  to  an  elementary  school  to  serve  a  period  of  four  months 
as  a  cadet  without  pay.  For  years  on  account  of  a  shortage  of  teachers  the 
cadets  have  been  called  upon  to  serve  as  substitutes  for  a  large  part  of  this 
period  of  cadetship.  The  survey  committee  gathered  the  opinions  of  the  prin- 
cipals and  a  selected  number  of  graduates  as  to  the  effects  of  this  practice. 
A  majority  of  the  principals  believe  that  it  is  not  fair  to  mark  a  substitute  ca- 
det on  the  basis  of  a  minimum  of  two  days'  service,  that  service  as  a  substitute 
tends  to  disintegrate  the  young  teacher's  training,  and  that  it  would  be  better 
to  assign  the  graduate  at  once  to  a  school  for  four  months' continuous  service. 
A  majority  of  the  graduates  report  that  more  than  half  their  time  as  cadets 
was  given  to  service  as  substitutes,  that  they  could  utilize  the  normal  school 
training  in  the  service  of  substituting,  that  substituting  is  harder  than  reg- 


Present-Day  Agencies  75 

ular  teaching,  and  that  they  would  prefer  to  be  assigned  as  regular  teachers 
at  the  outset.     (Chicago,  111.,  1915,  p.  56ff.) 

The  following  illustration  is  a  pre-service  form : 

Another  important  addition  to  the  curriculum  has  been  added  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  teachers'  training  department.  The  plan  provides  for  an 
annual  selection  of  not  more  than  seven  graduates  of  the  High  School  to  be 
known  as  cadet  teachers.  The  cadet  teachers  will  be  required  to  remain  two 
weeks  at  a  time  in  rooms  designated  by  the  Superintendent,  observing  and 
assisting  with  the  work  of  teaching.  They  will  be  given  a  course  in  pedagogy, 
and  will  make  weekly  recitations  and  reports  of  their  work.  It  is  the  intention 
that  every  opportunity  will  be  given  cadet  teachers  to  get  the  practical  knowl- 
edge of  teaching,  as  well  as  a  theoretical  basis  for  good  teaching.  They  will 
also  be  given  the  privilege  of  doing  the  supply  work  in  the  city  system  for  which 
they  will  be  paid  two  dollars  a  day.  (Muskogee,  Okla.,  1912-13,  p.  14.) 

5.     SUBSTITUTES. 

The  following  is  a  discussion  of  substitute  teachers  from 
Washington,  D.  C. : 

Our  list  of  substitutes  is  made  up  of  normal  school  graduates  who  have  not 
secured  regular  appointments,  and  who  have  not  had  training  or  real  experience 
fitting  them  for  work  in  the  higher  grades,  of  candidates  for  appointment  now 
on  the  eligible  list,  and  of  ex-teachers  and  others  with  or  without  professional 
training. 

It  is  my  thought  that  all  supervisory  officers  should  give  special  attention 
to  the  supervision  of  the  substitute  service.  High  and  normal  school  principals 
should  supervise  closely  the  substitutes  employed  in  their  buildings  and  should 
report  monthly  on  their  efficiency  to  the  superintendent.  The  supervising 
principals,  or  certain  ones  designated,  and  the  directors  of  special  work  should 
systematically  supervise  and  report  of  the  efficiency  of  the  substitutes  in  their 
fields.  The  supervision  should  be  definitely  constructive,  involving  criticisms, 
suggestions  for  improvement,  advice  as  to  classes  to  visit  for  observation,  etc. 
(Washington,  D.  C.,  1916,  pp.  34-35.) 

The  two  following  illustrations  are  of  the  pre-service  type: 

Whereas,  heretofore,  teachers  of  no  training  and  without  experience  were 
able  to  enter  our  teaching  corps,  now,  through  the  wise  action  of  the  Board, 
no  teacher  can  enter  the  corps  unless  of  four  years'  high  school  education  and 
two  years'  service  as  a  substitute  teacher. 

These  substitutes,  besides  following  a  course  in  professional  reading  and 
study,  will  spend  ten  days  each  month  in  the  schools  observing  and  assisting. 
(Allentown,  Pa.,  1917-18,  p.  38.) 

Small  cities  like  Spartanburg  cannot  afford  a  normal  school.  But  the 
school  system  of  the  town  may  represent  a  training  school,  of  which  the  un- 


76  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

trained  teachers  and  the  substitutes  are  the  students  and  the  Superintendent 
and  the  trained  teachers  are  the  instructors.  Some  of  the  regular  teachers  are 
selected,  whom  the  pupil-teachers  are  sent  to  observe.  The  teacher  explains 
the  purpose  of  her  work.  The  pupil-teacher  is  expected  to  take  notes  and  to 
ask  questions.  After  a  while,  when  she  begins  to  become  familiar  with  the 
methods  of  teaching,  the  substitute  is  required  to  teach  the  class  herself,  under 
the  supervision  of  the  regular  teacher,  who  is  expected  to  hand  the  Superin- 
tendent a  written  criticism  of  the  work.  The  criticism  often  bring  about  a 
conference  of  the  Superintendent,  the  teacher  and  the  substitute.  In  this  way, 
the  substitute  learns  how  to  plan  lessons,  to  call  the  classes  to  order  and  to 
dismiss  them,  besides  having  the  opportunity  of  the  advice  of  friendly  critics. 

When  the  time  for  the  annual  election  of  teachers  comes,  the  Board  of 
Trustees  will  feel  under  no  obligation  to  appoint  applicants  from  home,  except 
those  who  have  done  satisfactory  work  in  the  training  class.  The  Board  is 
generally  relieved  to  have  the  number  of  home  applicants  reduced  in  this  way. 

Young  ladies  who  wish  to  be  employed  as  substitutes  should  report  to 
the  Superintendent  not  later  than  October  1st.  None  but  full  college  gradu- 
ates need  apply.  (Spartanburg,  S.  C.,  1918-19,  p.  23.) 

(II)    OTHER  METHODS. 

1.  TRAINING  CLASS. 

The  Training  Class  was  organized  under  the  leadership  of  a  committee 
of  three  *  *  *  for  the  purpose  of  giving  practical  training  to  supply  teachers 
and  newly  appointed  teachers.  [The  class  met  once  a  week,  each  Thursday, 
in  the  East  Denver  High  School.]  (Denver,  Colo.,  (2)  1918-19,  p.  24.) 

2.  MODEL  TEACHERS. 

This  method,  as  used  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  was  evidently 
applicable  to  experienced  teachers  as  well  as  to  the  younger 
teachers,  but  it  is  included  here  because  it  represents  a  special 
type  of  work  for  the  younger  teachers. 

At  present  the  model  teacher  conducts  her  own  class  as  an  observation 
class.  On  the  half  of  each  day  when  she  is  not  teaching  she  visits  a  certain 
group  of  grade  teachers  assigned  to  her  and  supervises  their  work. 

The  Superintendent  criticises  this  procedure  on  the  following 
grounds : 

1.  The  use  of  model  teachers  as  supervisors,  and 

2.  The  wisdom  of  having  young  teachers  observe  and  model 
themselves  after  a  single  individual. 

It  is  my  intention  to  direct  that  during  the  coming  year  [1916]  first  and 
second  grade  teachers  shall  visit  at  least  once  per  term  each  model  teacher  of 
the  same  grade. 


Present-Day  Agencies  77 

I  believe  that  we  should  not  make  our  appointments  to  model  teacherships 
permanent.     (Washington,  D.  C.,  1915,  pp.  24-25.) 


3.  TRAINING  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION. 
The  form  reported  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  is  as  follows: 

Another  improvement  has  been  the  appointment  of  an  assistant  teacher 
in  the  training  school,  thus  enabling  the  training  school  teachers  to  see  the  work 
of  the  newly  elected  teachers  and  to  help  them  as  much  as  possible.  (Augusta,, 
Ga.,  1913,  p.  40.) 

Another  form  of  this  in  the  report  from  Providence,  R.  I., 
which  follows: 

In  addition,  the  practical  side  of  teaching  is  fostered  through  the  state 
and  city  training  schools.  This  provision  makes  it  possible  for  the  young 
teacher  to  have  a  year's  actual  experience  in  charge  of  a  ckss-i  oom,and  during 
that  period  to  benefit  by  the  constant  advice  and  help  of  the  critic  teacher. 
(Providence,  R.  I.,  1915-16,  p.  58.) 

A  third  form  is  from  Cleveland: 

When  the  young  graduates  have  been  long  enough  in  the  work  of  teaching 
to  know  definitely  some  of  the  problems  which,  alone  in  a  school  room  they 
must  struggle  with,  their  teacher  friends  of  the  Normal  School  are  often  able 
to  render  valuable  assistance  by  virtue  of  visiting  them  at  their  work.  On  the 
other  hand,  some  of  the  training  teachers  see  reflected  in  their  former  students 
their  own  mannerisms  and  peculiarities.  Thus  these  visits  result  in  benefit 
to  those  supervising  as  well  as  to  those  supervised.  (Cleveland,  Ohio,  (1) 
1914-15,  pp.  48-50.) 

4.  SPECIAL  SUPERVISION  OF  YOUNG  TEACHERS. 

There  has  also  been  much  supervision  of  inexperienced  teachers  during 
their  first  year  of  service.  (Cincinnati,  Ohio,  (2)  1914,  p.  132.) 

The  following  is  from  Fall  River,  Massachusetts: 

The  younger  teachers  for  the  most  part  have  been  closely  supervised. 
They  have  been  given  advice  and  direction  so  that  they  will  live  up  to  the  ideals 
and  standards  set  before  them  in  the  Normal  Schools,  that  they  make  as  few 
mistakes  as  possible  and  waste  the  least  amount  of  time  in  finding  their  way 
into  skilled  methods  of  teaching.  Working  under  this  direction  many  of  the 
young  teachers  have  gained  rapidly  in  ability  to  take  charge  of  a  room  and 
have  been  saved  from  the  discouragement  due  to  misdirected  effort.  It  is 
evident  that  young  teachers  should  not  be  allowed  to  form  habits,  which,  at 
a  later  time,  will  have  to  be  laboriously  corrected.  It  is  very  gratifying  to  say 


78  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

that  almost  without  exception  the  young  teachers  have  taken  advice  freely, 
have  acted  upon  it,  and  to  the  best  of  their  ability  have  tried  to  improve  their 
work. 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  supervisor  first  of  all  to  encourage  and  stimulate  young 
teachers,  exercising  at  the  same  time  a  frank  criticism  of  faults  and  errors. 
Criticism,  however,  must  be  wisely  given  for  it  should  never  leave  a  feeling  of 
discouragement.  The  supervisor  and  the  young  teacher  must  get  into  such 
close  relationship  that  the  teacher  embodies  the  spirit  of  the  supervisor  without 
having  her  own  freedom  and  independence  warped.  She  should  feel  that  the 
supervisor  is  her  friend  and  that  she  is  ready  at  any  time  to  talk  over  the  points 
in  teaching  that  are  most  difficult  to  handle.  (Fall  River,  Mass.,  1917,  pp. 
63-64.) 

The  following  is  illustrative  from  Moline,  111. : 

As  a  further  effort  towards  improvement  in  service  the  principals  and 
supervisors  were  asked  to  make  use  of  a  so-called  Efficiency  Card  in  rating  the 
work  of  the  teachers  who  were  in  their  first  year  of  service.  A  composite  card, 
the  results  of  the  combined  opinions  of  all  the  supervisors,  the  principal  and 
the  superintendent,  indicated  the  points  of  strength  and  weakness,  and  in 
many  instances  served  as  a  great  help  in  locating  deficiencies  and  in  suggesting 
remedies.  (Moline,  111.,  1916,  p.  29.) 

5.  RESERVE  TEACHER. 

The  illustration  below  is  an  instance  of  efforts  toward  the  im- 
provement of  all  teachers,  but  the  special  applicability  of  the  scheme 
to  the  helping  of  the  young  teacher  makes  it  pertinent  here. 

In  the  fall  of  1914  the  Board  of  Education  selected  four  teachers  of  broad 
experience  and  proven  skill  to  be  reserve  teachers,  with  salaries  ranging  above 
$1,000.  Their  duties  are  indicated  by  their  title.  They  were  not  only  active 
as  supply  teachers  in  case  of  sickness,  or  absence  of  the  regular  teacher  but  they 
were  frequently  sent  to  make  a  study  of  unusual  or  annoying  school-room  con- 
ditions and  to  render  assistance  therein.  (Dallas,  Tex.,  1915,  p.  18.) 

6.  SPECIAL  MEETINGS  OF  YOUNG  TEACHERS. 

During  October,  1912,  four  Saturday  forenoon  meetings  were  held  to 
improve  the  members  of  the  training  class,  aids  and  those  teachers  who  most 
needed  help  in  drawing,  music,  physical  education  and  penmanship.  The 
instruction  was  given  by  the  respective  supervisors  of  these  subjects.  In  order 
that  the  principals  and  the  assistant  superintendent  might  be  in  close  touch 
with  the  requirements  of  the  supervisors,  they  were  all  required  to  attend 
these  meetings.  The  superintendent  was  in  attendance  upon  all  of  them. 
The  teachers  who  attended  these  meetings  received  much  help  from  them. 
(Memphis,  Tenn.,  1912-13,  p.  61.) 


Present-Day  Agencies  79 

7.  VISITS  AND  OBSERVATION. 

During  the  past  two  years  twenty-one  teachers  selected  from  the  unassigned 
list  were  trained  in  first  grade  work.  At  different  times  in  the  past  we  have  had 
difficulty  in  securing  well  qualified  new  teachers  to  take  charge  of  the  first 
grade  rooms.  Many  young  women  who  are  capable  in  other  grades  preferred 
not  to  teach  in  the  first  grade  feeling  that  they  were  unfitted  for  that  particular 
branch  of  the  work.  Realizing  how  very  necessary  it  is  that  the  first  grade 
teacher  should  be  particularly  adapted  for  her  work,  and  also  happy  in  it,  a 
plan  was  devised  by  which  selected  young  teachers  were  trained  in  first  grade 
work.  A  number  of  the  regular  first  grade  teachers  were  enlisted  to  help  in 
the  training.  Each  young  teacher  had  a  program  of  visiting  planned  for  her. 
She  was  given  opportunity  to  visit  first  grade  rooms  in  the  various  parts  of  the 
city  where  conditions  vary  much.  After  each  visiting  day,  the  teachers  in 
training  met  to  discuss  what  they  had  observed  in  the  different  classes  and 
then  had  the  different  phases  of  first  grade  work  explained  to  them.  As  a 
result  of  this  training  there  has  been  for  a  year  and  a  half  a  sufficient  number 
of  teachers  who  could  take  charge  of  first  grade  rooms  whenever  vacancies 
occurred.  (Fall  River,  Mass.,  1911,  pp.  64-65.) 

8.  TEACHING-CENTER  PLAN.     (Buffalo,  N.  Y.) 

In  brief,  the  principal  features  of  this  plan  are  as  follows:  By  agreement 
with  the  University  of  Buffalo  and  Canisius  College,  all  graduates  of  the 
Buffalo  State  Normal  School  are  given  credit  for  two  full  years  of  collegiate 
work.  Upon  passing  the  city  competitive  examination  they  receive  the  usual 
probationary  contract  terminable  at  any  time  within  two  years  upon  the  suc- 
cessful completion  of  which  their  tenure  becomes  permanent.  They  are  as- 
signed to  one  of  six  schools  designated  as  "Teacher-centers,"  given  a  regular 
class,  and  receive  the  full  pay  provided  by  the  salary-schedule  for  the  beginning 
teacher.  The  considerations  governing  the  selection  of  these  teacher- centers 
were  threefold.  First,  a  principal  who  had  demonstrated  unusual  ability  as  a 
teacher-builder;  second,  a  school  which  had  established  high  ideals  of  achieve- 
ment for  the  various  grades;  third,  accessibility  to  the  normal  school  and  the 
university  where  the  probationary  teacher  takes  her  extra  work. 

For  every  four  or  five  probationary  teachers,  each  center  has  one  super- 
visory teacher,  who,  by  reason  of  her  high  ideals,  strong  personality,  capacity 
for  growth,  and  unusual  instructional  skill,  has  shown  special  aptitude  for  this 
work.  She  helps  the  probationary  teacher  plan  her  lessons;  sympathetically 
evaluates  her  performance;  takes  her  classes  for  demonstration  purposes;  aids 
her  in  her  disciplinary  troubles;  keeps  her  in  touch  with  the  most  helpful 
literature  of  her  subjects;  encourages,  stimulates,  and  assists  her  in  all  her 
difficulties;  in  short,  acts  as  a  "big-sister"  or  official  adviser. 

For  the  work  at  the  teacher-centers,  if  successful,  the  probationer  is  given 
two  college  credits  for  each  semester  on  the  ground  that  this  constitutes  her 
laboratory  work.  This  teaching  credit  may  be  continued  for  three  years, 
making  it  possible  for  her  to  secure  twelve  credits  for  successful  teaching. 
College  credit  for  successful  teaching  is  somewhat  of  a  novelty  and  was  not 


80  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

gained  without  considerable  effort.  The  necessary  credit  was,  however, 
finally  granted  and  as  a  result,  for  the  first  time,  so  far  as  I  know,  in  the  history 
of  education,  successful  teaching  under  the  most  careful  supervision  is  placed 
on  a  footing  of  collegiate  equality  with  such  sacred  operations  as  changing 
chemical  compounds  and  carving  crayfish. 

In  addition  to  the  arduous  work  involved  in  the  intensive  training  of  the 
teacher-center,  each  probationer  is  required  to  take  a  two-hour  course  in  what 
we  term,  for  want  of  a  better  name,  "college  civics."  We  are  passing  through 
a  period  of  general  unrest  and  vague  dissatisfaction  with  all  existing  institutions. 
Every  man  who  finds  his  abilities  inadequate  for  making  a  success  of  his  own 
affairs  feels  a  strong  call  to  the  less  arduous  and  much  more  soul-satisfying 
task  of  reforming  the  world.  That  the  carrying  out  of  his  particular  scheme 
of  reform  may  involve  the  tearing  down  of  all  that  the  race  has  so  laboriously 
built  up  in  the  slow  and  painful  progress  of  civilization  seems  to  him  a  mere 
detail.  We  may  deport  the  most  dangerous  of  these  radicals  but  we  cannot 
deport  the  dangerous  idea.  For  that,  the  sole  remedy  is  education.  The  ob- 
ject of  this  course  in  college  civics  is  to  orient  the  probationary  teacher  in  the 
social  order  of  which  she  forms  a  part  and  to  give  her  a  few  sound  notions  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  economics  and  sociology.  This  course  pursued 
throughout  the  year  carries  four  college  credits. 

At  the  end  of  her  year  at  the  teacher-center  the  probationer  has  acquired 
sixty-four  credits  for  her  normal-school  work,  four  for  college  civics,  and,  an- 
ticipating the  next  two  years,  twelve  for  successful  teaching,  making  a  total  of 
eighty  college  credits.  As  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight  credits  are  required 
for  graduation,  she  has  forty-eight  still  to  secure. 

She  is  then  assigned  to  one  of  the  regular  schools  of  the  city,  making  way 
for  a  new  group  of  incoming  teachers  at  the  teacher-centers.  If  she  wishes  to 
work  for  a  degree,  she  must  now  decide  on  her  future  line  of  work  as  a  teacher  of 
upper  or  lower  elementary  grades,  or  of  some  special  subject  in  the  intermediate 
schools  or  senior  high  school.  For  each  of  these  fields  a  course  of  required 
subjects,  together  with  sufficient  electives  to  complete  the  remaining  forty-eight 
credits  required  for  graduation,  is  laid  down  by  the  university.  This  work  has 
been  so  arranged  that  it  can  all  be  taken  after  school  hours  and  on  Saturday 
forenoons.  The  teacher  may  progress  rapidly  or  slowly  according  to  her  abili- 
ties and  inclinations  and  upon  completion  of  this  work,  together  with  the 
submission  of  a  satisfactory  thesis,  she  is  granted  the  regular  Bachelor  of 
Science  degree  at  the  University  of  Buffalo.  Similar  arrangements  have  been 
made  with  Canisius  College. l 

'Pillsbury,  W.  H.,  Elementary  School  Journal,  Vol.  XXI,   No.   8,  April,  1921,  The  Buffalo 
Plan  of  Teacher  Training,  pp.  599-601. 


Present-Day  Agencies  81 

The  following  outline  is  inserted  as  an  aid  to  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  continuity  of  this  chapter. 

I.  EXTENSION  ACTIVITIES. 

(I)  UNIVERSITY  AND  COLLEGE  EXTENSION. 

1.  AT  THE  INSTITUTION. 

(1)  ACADEMIC  TYPE  OF  WORK. 

(2)  PROFESSIONAL  TYPE  OF  WORK. 

2.  COURSES  OUTSIDE  OF  INSTITUTION. 

(1)  BY  COLLEGIATE  INSTRUCTORS. 

(a)  Academic  Type. 

(b)  Professional  Type. 

(2)  BY   LOCAL    INSTRUCTORS. 

(a)     Professional. 

(II)  NORMAL  SCHOOL  EXTENSION. 

(III)  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  EXTENSION. 

(IV)  STATE  EXTENSION. 
(V)  SUMMER  SCHOOLS. 

1.  KINDS  OF  INSTITUTIONS. 

(1)  UNIVERSITY. 

(2)  COLLEGES. 

(3  )        NORMAL  SCHOOLS  OR  NORMAL  COLLEGES. 
(4)        CITY  OR  COUNTY  TRAINING  SCHOOLS. 

2.  RECOGNITION  OF  SUMMER  SCHOOL  WORK. 

(1)  BONUS. 

(2)  SCHOLARSHIP  OR  SUBSIDY. 

(3)  CREDIT  TOWARD  SALARY  INCREASE. 
(VI)    TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATION  EXTENSION. 

(VII)  CORRESPONDENCE  EXTENSION. 

(VIII)  STUDY  GROUPS. 

(IX)  SPECIAL  SUBJECT  INSTRUCTION. 

(X)  CHAUTAUQUA. 

(XI)  VACATION  SCHOOL. 

II.  TEACHERS'  MEETINGS. 

(I)     GENERAL  PURPOSES. 

(II)  TYPES  OF  MEETINGS. 

1.     GENERAL  PROFESSIONAL  MEETINGS  OF  TEACHERS. 

(l)        TYPES. 

(a)      Compulsory. 


82  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(b)  Voluntary. 

(c)  Regular. 

(d)  Special. 

(2)  MEETINGS  IN  CHARGE  OF 

(d)     Superintendent  or  Supervisors, 
(b)      Special  Committees  of  Teachers. 

(3)  ACTIVITIES  OF  THESE  MEETINGS. 

(a)  Discussion  of  School  Subjects . 

(b)  Special  and  General  Topics. 

(c)  Outside  Speakers. 

(d)  Local  Speakers. 

(e)  Book  Study. 

2.  GRADE  MEETINGS. 

(l)       ACTIVITIES. 

(a)  Plans  for  Future  Work. 

(b)  Outside  Speakers. 

(c)  Discussions  of  Methods. 

(d)  Demonstration  Lessons. 

(e)  Special  Types. 

3.  BUILDING  MEETINGS. 

(1)  BUILDING  ROUTINE. 

(2)  PROFESSIONAL  PURPOSES. 

(a)  Discussion. 

(b)  Professional  Reading. 

(c)  Special  Topics. 

4.  DEPARTMENTAL  OR  GROUP  MEETINGS. 

5.  PRINCIPALS'  MEETINGS. 

6.  TEACHERS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 

(1)  TYPE  I,  LEGISLATIVE  AND  DELIBERATIVE 

(a)  State. 

(b)  Territorial. 

(c)  City  or  Local. 

(2)  TYPE  II,  LOCAL  GROUPINGS. 

(a)     Activities. 

(i)  STUDY  COURSES. 
(ii)  LECTURE  COURSES. 

[  i  ]     Isolated  Professional  Lectures . 

[  ii  ]     Isolated  Non-Professional  Lectures. 


Present-Day  Agencies  83 

[  iii  ]     Non-Professional  Series  of  Lectures  or 

Courses. 
[  iv  ]     Professional  Series  or  Courses. 

(6)      Support. 

(i)     PRIVATE. 

(ii)     PRIVATE  AND  TEACHERS. 
(iii)     TEACHERS  AND  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 
(iv)     BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

(v)     TEACHERS  AND  PUBLIC. 

7.  PRINCIPALS'  ASSOCIATIONS. 

8.  SPECIAL  CLUBS  OR  ASSOCIATIONS. 

9.  INSTITUTES. 

(1)  TIME  OF  HOLDING  MEETINGS. 

(2)  PURPOSES. 

(3)  DISADVANTAGES. 

(4)  ACTIVITIES. 

(a)     Lectures  by  Professional  Speakers. 
(6)     Section  Meetings. 

III.    DEVICES. 

(I)  INCENTIVES  AND  INDUCEMENTS  OF  THE  BOARD  OF 
EDUCATION. 

1.  SALARY  SCHEDULE. 

(1)  MANDATORY  STUDY. 

(2)  VOLUNTARY  STUDY. 

2.  BONUS. 

3.  REWARD  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  SERVICE. 

4.  SCHOLARSHIP. 

5.  LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE. 

(1)  WITHOUT  PAY. 

(2)  WITHOUT  PAY  BUT  WITH  SALARY  INCREASE. 

(3)  WITH  PAY. 

(4)  SPECIAL  NEGATIVE  CASES. 

6.  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  DIPLOMA. 

7.  TRAVEL. 

(II)  BOARD  OF  EDUCATION  REQUIREMENTS. 

1.  LICENSE  PLAN. 

2.  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PROFESSIONAL  STUDY. 


84  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

(III)    EXTENSION  OF  KNOWLEDGE. 

1.  TEACHERS'  PROFESSIONAL  LIBRARY. 

(1)  IN  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOLS. 

(a)  By  Board  of  Education. 

(b)  By  Public  Library. 

(2)  IN  PUBLIC  LIBRARY. 

(3)  IN  SPECIAL  TEACHERS'  LIBRARY. 

(4)  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  INSTITUTE. 

(5)  DEPARTMENT  OF  SUPERINTENDENCE. 

2.  PROFESSIONAL  READING  COURSES. 

(1)  IN  SCHOOLS. 

(2)  REQUIRED. 

(a)  By  Superintendent. 

(b)  By  Board  of  Education. 

(3  )        SEMI-RE  QUIRED . 

(4)  VOLUNTARY. 

(a)  With  Superintendent 

(b)  With  Public  Library. 

(5)  READING  CIRCLE. 

3.  COLLECTIONS  OF  MATERIALS,  CLASS  LABORATORY 
AND  EXPERIMENTATION,  AND  THESIS. 

4.  VISITING  DAYS. 

5.  MAGAZINES  AND  PERIODICALS. 

(IV)     MISCELLANEOUS  DEVICES. 

1.  SELF-RATING  CARDS  OR  DEVICES. 

2.  EXCHANGE  OF  TEACHERS. 

3.  IMPROVING  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

4.  SCHOOL  EXHIBITS. 

5.  TESTS  AND  MEASUREMENTS. 

6.  PROPOSAL  FOR  TWELVE  MONTHS'  SALARY. 

IV.    PROFESSIONAL  SUPERVISION. 

(I)  PERSONAL  INTERVIEWS. 

(II)  PROFESSIONAL  SUPERVISION. 

(III)  HELPING  TEACHER. 

(IV)  DEMONSTRATION  LESSONS. 


Present-Day  Agencies  85 

V.    WORK  WITH  NEW  TEACHERS. 

(I)  TYPES. 

1.  ASSISTING  TEACHERS. 

2.  BUILDING  ASSISTANTS. 

3.  APPRENTICE  TEACHERS. 

4.  CADET  TEACHERS. 

5.  SUBSTITUTES. 

(II)  OTHER  METHODS. 

1.  TRAINING  CLASS. 

2.  MODEL  TEACHERS. 

3.  TRAINING  SCHOOL  SUPERVISION. 

4.  SPECIAL  SUPERVISION  OF  YOUNG  TEACHERS. 

5.  RESERVE  TEACHER. 

6.  SPECIAL  MEETINGS  OF  YOUNG  TEACHERS. 

7.  VISITS  AND  OBSERVATION. 

8.  TEACHING-CENTER  PLAN. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

THE  SOURCES  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  the  teaching  body  may  be  im- 
proved. The  first  of  these  is  by  the  elimination  from  that  body 
of  those  teachers  who  are  below  the  average  of  the  teachers  in  the 
school  system.  This  elimination  may  come  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
either  before  teachers  enter  the  system,  after  they  have  been  in 
it  for  many  years,  or  at  any  time  during  their  service.  Thus,  when 
more  or  better  preparation  than  has  been  the  previous  rule  is 
required,  the  quality  of  the  teaching  body  as  a  whole  is  increased 
by  just  as  much  as  the  new  teachers  of  the  system  are  better  pre- 
pared for  or  have  had  more  valuable  experience  in  teaching  than 
the  teachers  whom  they  replace.  A  supervisor  therefore  suggests 
that  improvement  may  come 

by  requiring  of  inexperienced  candidates  that  they  shall  have  attained  a 
given  per  cent  of  excellence  in  their  Normal  School  Course,  thereby  providing 
for  a  maximum  of  security  against  failure.  (New  Britain,  Conn.,  1916,  p.  16.) 

Teachers  may  also  be  eliminated  who  have  served  for  many 
years  in  the  school  system.  When  these  teachers  are  eliminated 
from  the  teaching  body  the  quality  of  that  body  as  a  whole  is  im- 
proved by  just  as  much  as  the  difference  between  the  quality  of 
those  discarded  and  the  quality  of  those  teachers  who  replace  them. 
Superintendent  Downes  writes, 

A  local  teachers'  retirement  plan  has  been  in  'operation  since  1908.  A 
total  of  forty  teachers  have  been  retired  to  date,  either  on  the  ground  of  age 
and  service  or  because  of  physical  disability.  .  .  .  That  the  operation 
of  such  a  plan  has  resulted  in  improved  teaching  there  can  be  no  doubt. 
(Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1919,  p.  26.) 

Another  plan  is  that  in  effect  in  many  eastern  cities  which 
provides  that  teachers  entering  the  service  shall  have  had  some 
experience  in  teaching.  (See  New  Bedford  Plan,  p.  74.)  Other 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  87 

plans,  such  as  the  removal  of  a  teacher  for  cause,  or  for  inefficiency, 
tend  to  have  the  same  effect  as  these. 

The  emphasis  in  this  type  of  improvement  of  the  teaching 
body  is  upon  the  improvement  of  the  school  system  and  not  upon 
the  improvement  of  the  individual  teacher.  It  is  then,  in  a 
sense  negative  in  character. 

Positive  and  genuine  improvement  comes  in  the  second  way. 
It  consists  in  the  improvement  of  the  teachers  during  their  period 
of  service.  It  results  in  making  the  teachers,  individually  as  well 
as  collectively,  better  teachers.  It  is  in  this  improvement  that  is 
found  the  greatest  hope  for  progress  within  the  system. 

THE  KINDS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

In  teaching  there  is  an  important  trinity  that  in  some  degree 
must  be  present  in  every  teacher.  These  are  the  mechanics  of 
teaching,  the  knowledge  that  constitutes  the  teacher's  "stock-in- 
trade,"  and,  probably  most  important  of  all,  something  that  may 
be  called  the  "power"  that  is  behind  both. 

In  these  three  ways  a  teacher  may  improve.  They  do  not 
come  singly  perhaps,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  improvement  in  one 
does  not  necessarily  mean  an  equal  improvement  in  the  others. 
The  teacher  of  broad  knowledge  and  consummate  skill  in  teaching 
may  not  have  the  requisite  idealism  to  make  his  teaching  successful. 
The  teacher  of  high  idealism  without  the  skills  and  knowledge  to 
back  it  up  cannot  be  the  best  teacher.  The  teacher  with  broad 
knowledge  and  high  ideals  can  do  little  without  the  necessary  skills. 
The  harmonious  development  of  all  three  types  of  improvement 
constitutes  the  problem  of  the  improvement  of  the  teacher  in 
service. 

The  mechanics  of  teaching  consists  in  the  skills  that  a  teacher 
possesses.  Improvement  may  come  through  the  achievement  of 
greater  skill  in  presenting  subject  matter,  or  it  may  come  in  the 
development  of  those  relations  with  children  which  are  so  impor- 
tant in  giving  to  the  work  an  effective  appeal.  Improvement  may 
also  come  through  becoming  better  adapted  to  the  requirements 
of  the  school  system,  through  increased  ability  to  do  well  the 
routine  tasks  involved  in  "school  housekeeping,"  through  increased 
ability  to  cooperate  with  supervisors  and  fellow-teachers,  and 
through  increased  ability  to  deal  thoughtfully  with  parents  and 


88  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

with  the  public ;  in  short,  through  becoming  better  able  to  assume 
the  responsibilities  that  come  to  every  teacher.  These  all  mean 
improvement  primarily  in  the  skills  of  teaching,  and  growth  in 
any  of  them  makes  a  better  teacher. 

The  knowledge  that  a  teacher  has  is  a  large  element  of  his 
"stock-in-trade".  A  wider  understanding  of  the  subject-matter 
which  he  teaches,  a  broader  point  of  view  with  respect  to  it,  a 
clearer  understanding  of  its  implications  and  connections,  and  a 
keener  respect  for  it  gained  through  a  knowledge  of  its  historical 
or  technical  derivations,  will  undoubtedly  tend  to  make  the  teacher 
a  better  teacher.  Fresh  knowledge,  it  is  generally  agreed,  adds 
to  the  teacher's  zest  and  interest  in  teaching,  and  therefore  helps 
to  improve  that  teaching. 

What  for  want  of  a  better  term  has  been  referred  to  as  "power" 
is  the  motive  or  "drive"  that  actuates  the  teacher's  work,  and 
determines  largely  his  attitude  toward  it.  It  may  take  the  form 
of  greater  inspiration  in  the  development  of  the  work  that  he  is 
doing,  or  it  may  be  new  perspectives  or  a  more  satisfying  apprecia- 
tion of  his  efforts  by  others.  It  may  be  that  a  greater  sympathy, 
or  a  new  attitude  may  make  his  work  more  valuable.  It  is  clearly 
predictable  that  fresh  idealism,  or  an  enhanced  conception  of  parts 
of  his  work  will  release  new  energy.  All  these  are  forms  of  power 
and  their  improvement  or  their  acquisition  makes  a  teacher  a 
better  teacher. 

THE  PERIODS  OF  IMPROVEMENT 

There  are  differences  among  teachers  in  the  kinds  of  improve- 
ment they  need,  just  as  there  are  differing  kinds  of  improvement. 
The  chief  difference  between  the  young  and  the  experienced 
teacher  lies  in  the  emphasis  which  is  placed  on  the  type  of  improve- 
ment which  the  two  teachers  require,  whether  it  be  skill,  knowledge, 
or  idealism.  The  requirement  may  be  a  matter  of  greater  need  at 
a  particular  time  for  one  type  than  for  another.  It  is  probable 
that  the  inexperienced  teacher,  already  having  had  a  grounding  in 
the  subject  matter  with  which  he  has  to  deal,  should  attain  a 
mastery  of  the  technique  in  its  presentation  and  teaching  before 
he  should  attempt  to  widen  the  horizon  of  his  knowledge,  or  attempt 
to  improve  the  quality  of  the  ideals  which  he  professes.  On  the 
other  hand,  for  the  teacher  who  has  well  mastered  the  teaching  of 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  89 

the  subject  matter  that  he  knows  the  greater  need  may  be  the  ex- 
tension of  his  knowledge  or  the  inspiration  of  new  ideals,  or  both. 

While  it  is  recognized  as  probable  that  if  all  teachers  could  be 
accurately  measured  in  these  attributes  and  classified  it  would  be 
found  that  they  would  be  distributed  in  somewhat  the  same  fashion 
that  they  would  be  distributed  if  measured  in  certain  concrete 
physical  attributes, — that  is  in  a  regular  progression,— it  is  con- 
venient here  to  consider  three  general  classes  of  teachers  that  may 
be  found  in  every  good-sized  school  system  in  this  country. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  novice  teacher.  Granted  that  he  has 
had  the  usual  professional  two  years'  preparation  for  teaching  the 
new  teacher  enters  upon  his  teaching  experience  in  a  new  environ- 
ment, facing  the  necessity  of  using  tools  relatively  unfamiliar,  and 
materials  the  characteristics  of  which  are  but  little  known.  He 
has  a  knowledge  of  the  content  of  the  curriculum  which  he  is  ex- 
pected to  teach,  but  has  not  gained  a  mastery  of  the  technique  of 
its  presentation  nor  has  he  learned  how  to  adjust  himself  to  his 
pupils. 

The  second  may  be  called  the  more  experienced  teacher.  This 
teacher  is  one  who  has  formed  the  habits  of  adjusting  himself  to 
the  school  situation  and  these  make  it  possible  for  his  work  to 
proceed  smoothly.  He  has  enlarged  his  outlook  but  little  and 
broadened  his  knowledge  only  slightly  since  entering  the  profession. 
He  is  therefore  in  danger  of  becoming  habituated  to  a  routine  de- 
velopment of  his  class-room  instruction.  Stagnation  or  arrest  of 
growth  is  the  great  danger  at  this  stage. 

The  third  is  the  master  teacher.  Of  the  master  teachers 
there  may  be  several  kinds,  according  to  the  particular  phase  of 
teaching  mastery  which  the  teacher  has  achieved,  or  according  to 
the  special  ability  which  the  teacher  has  demonstrated.  The 
qualifications  and  needs  of  these  teachers  are  more  fully  discussed 
in  a  later  section,  (see  pp.  130  ff.) 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  ACQUISITION  OF  TECHNIQUE  IN  THE 
SCHOOL  SYSTEM 

The  problem  of  the  acquisition  of  technique  is  very  largely 
the  problem  of  habit  formation.  The  right  response  must  be 
learned  and  wrong  responses  inhibited.  Then  the  right  responses 
must  be  repeated  and  repeated  until  they  become  habitual.  The 


90  Improvement  oj  Teachers  in  Service 

wrong  response  is  just  as  easy  to  habituate  as  the  right  response, 
providing  the  result  is,  to  the  person  himself,  just  as  satisfactory, 
or  provided  that  an  unsatisfactory  result  is  not  associated  with 
the  response. 

In  professions  the  acquisition  of  technique  takes  two  forms 
with  respect  to  the  period  in  which  the  learner  makes  the  acquisi- 
tion. On  the  one  hand  are  those  professions  where  it  is  expected 
that  the  greater  part  of  the  technique  that  is  necessary  to  the 
practice  of  the  profession  will  be  gained  after  the  learner  has 
finished  the  accepted  pre-service  training.  In  medicine  the  young 
graduate  may  enter  a  hospital  as  an  interne,  where  every  act  and 
every  attempt  at  practice  are  closely  watched,  supervised,  and 
corrected  when  necessary  at  the  time  the  act  is  made.  In  law  the 
young  law  graduate  may  spend  an  apprenticeship  in  the  office  of 
an  experienced  lawyer,  where,  too,  every  act  may  be  watched  and 
if  needs  be  corrected  at  the  time  that  correction  is  most  necessary 
to  prevent  wrong  habit  formation, — that  is  at  the  time  immediately 
after  the  wrong  act  is  made.  The  essential  characteristic  of  these 
two  professions,  in  this  respect,  is  that  the  young  probationer  is 
not  expected  to  find  in  his  professional  preparation  all  the  skills 
that  are  required  for  the  successful  practice  of  his  profession. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  professions  which  must  take  into 
account  the  fact  that  on  completing  his  pre-service  training  the 
young  practitioner  must  in  many  respects  succeed  while  standing 
on  his  own  feet,  or  fail  for  lack  of  skill.  In  journalism  and  in 
agriculture  the  truth  of  this  is  illustrated.  In  journalism  the 
cub-reporter  must  be  able  practically  from  the  start  of  his  career 
to  turn  in  a  creditable  news  story,  and  his  success  depends  to  a 
large  extent  upon  that  ability.  In  agriculture  the  young  graduate, 
despite  plenty  of  so-called  "book-knowledge,"  who  cannot  actually 
do  the  job  to  be  done  and  do  it  in  a  fairly  skillful  manner,  is  likely 
to  fail. 

At  the  present  time,  in  most  small  communities  and  even  in 
many  cities  the  profession  of  teaching  is  recognized  as  belonging 
to  the  latter  of  these  two  professional  classes.  It  is  assumed  that 
the  pre-service  training  has  so  prepared  the  prospective  teacher 
that  he  is  capable  of  assuming  full  responsibility.  On  this  basis 
the  new  teacher  is  so  placed  in  the  school  system  that  such  respon- 
sibility must  be  either  assumed  by  him  or  neglected.  In  spite  of 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  91 

this  assumption,  however,  it  is  recognized  that  the  new  teacher 
is  not  adequately  prepared  to  take  up  the  full  burden  of  teaching 
even  though  the  present  standard  of  two  years  of  normal-school 
training  may  have  been  met.  Such  recognition  is  clearly  evidenced 
whenever  provision  is  made  for  the  special  assistance  of  new  teach- 
ers. As  a  matter  of  fact,  therefore,  with  our  pre-service  training 
what  it  is,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  in  many  places  the  young 
teacher  is  expected  to  assume  full  responsibility  from  the  start, 
the  profession  of  teaching  really  belongs  in  the  group  with  medicine 
and  law.  In  other  words  there  should  follow  a  period  of  supervised 
apprenticeship  after  graduation  from  the  professional  school. 

Few  would  say  that  a  teacher  is  properly  equipped  independ- 
ently to  assume  full  responsibility  for  teaching  from  the  start  of 
his  teaching  career  when  two  years  or  less  of  training,  no  experience 
in  the  system,  and  very  little  practice  in  his  work  constitute  the 
main  elements  of  his  professional  equipment.  Edith  A.  Scott 
writes, 

Because  real  teaching  is  such  a  skillful  art  and  demands  a  first-hand  ex- 
perience with  children,  educators  are  coming  to  feel  that  it  is  quite  out  of  the 
question  to  expect  that  a  High-School  graduate  with  but  two  years  of  normal 
training  can,  without  further  guidance,  teach  with  the  same  facility  as  an 
experienced  teacher.  (Rochester,  N.  Y.,  (3)  1911-13,  p.  256.) 

If  without  further  help  the  young  teacher  does  carry  the  load 
creditably  he  gains  the  necessary  skill  in  the  practice  in  the  school- 
room. His  native  fertility  in  devising  schemes  to  meet  the  new 
situations  and  his  native  resourcefulness  in  meeting  his  problems 
play  a  large  part  in  his  success.  The  method  is  largely  one  of 
trial  and  error,  supplemented  probably  in  rare  instances  by  the 
deliberate  application  of  the  general  principles  that  he  has  learned 
in  the  professional  school.  Such  a  method  fixes  habits  of  skill 
just  as  surely  as  any  other  method,  and  the  habits  thus  fixed  are 
just  as  strong.  If  the  habits  that  eventually  resulted  from  this 
procedure  were  always  good  habits  practically  the  only  arguments 
that  could  be  urged  against  the  practice  would  be  the  waste  of  time 
and  the  harm  which  would  result  to  the  children  because  of  the 
uncontrolled  experimentation.  Far  from  being  good  habits  the 
testimony  of  supervisors  indicates  that  they  are  far  more  likely 
to  be  bad,  wasteful  and  wrong  habits,  formed  originally  in  the 


92  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

desperation  of  trying  to  solve  problems  of  discipline,  method  or 
social  contact.  (See  Fall  River,  Mass.,  1917,  p.  63  quoted  pp.77-78) 

The  chief  reason  that  these  habits  are  formed  is  that  the 
adjustments  involved  have  not  been  found  not  to  work.  Because 
they  have  seemed  to  solve  the  immediate  problem  they  have  given 
satisfaction  and  have  been  repeated.  They  remain  thus  bad, 
because  the  young  teacher,  by  reason  of  his  inexperience,  his 
inadequate  skill,  his  narrow  background  and  the  difficulty  of 
analyzing  a  relatively  new  and  extremely  complex  situation, 
apparently  cannot  usually  or  often  distinguish  between  the  good 
and  the  bad. 

The  problem  of  technique  with  the  young  teacher,  then,  is 
primarily  the  problem  of  fixing  right  habits,  of  correcting  wrong 
habits,  and  of  never  allowing  mistakes  to  remain  long  unconnected. 

As  has  been  suggested  the  gaining  of  technique  by  teachers 
probably  differs  in  degree  with  the  amount  of  previous  experience, 
and  with  the  quality  of  that  previous  experience  which  a  teacher 
has  undergone.  The  consideration  here  will  be  for  two  main  types, 
the  teacher  with  very  little  or  no  teaching  experience,  and  the 
teacher  who  already  has  a  large  number  of  fixed,  but  frequently 
inadequate  habits. 

The  period  of  a  teacher's  career  which  follows  his  first  appoint- 
ment is  generally  recognized  as  a  very  critical  period  in  the  teacher's 
life.  One  superintendent  expresses  it  as  such  in  the  previous 
chapter.  (See  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  (2)  1911-13,  quoted  p.  72) 

Another  attacks  the  problem  from  the  economic  standpoint. 

If  the  city  spends  the  money  to  keep  a  student  in  the  Normal  School  for 
two  years  from  an  economic  standpoint  it  would  seem  wise  to  watch  over  her 
when  she  becomes  a  teacher  until  she  is  sure  of  herself.  (Cleveland,  Ohio, 
(1)  1914-15,  p.  48.) 

Two  handicaps  of  the  novice  teacher  on  entering  a  new  school 
system  and  beginning  a  new  type  of  work  are  his  unfamiliarity 
with  the  standards  and  traditions  of  the  system  and  his  inability 
to  assume  quickly  the  responsibilities  which  are  necessary.  The 
one  means  an  absence  of  the  desirable  background,  and  the  other 
a  difficulty  in  acquiring  it.  From  the  point  of  view  of  the  school 
system  it  is  very  important  that  lrhe  young  teacher's  increasing 
acquaintance  with  the  system  shall  be  a  healthy  and  unprejudiced 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  93 

one.  For  the  young  teacher  to  gain  the  right  point  of  view,  for 
him  to  gain  that  knowledge  of  and  sensitiveness  to  the  standards 
which  make  for  the  best  type  of  teaching, — for  him  to  know  those 
things  which  will  allow  him  to  make  the  right  choices  of-  action 
and  to  know  that  they  are  the  right  choices, — makes  the  develop- 
ing teacher  an  asset  to  a  system  rather  than  a  liability.  It  insures 
that  satisfaction  in  teaching  will  come  to  the  young  teacher  only 
through  the  achievement  of  the  right  things. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher  it  would  seem  important 
that  he  be  gradually  and  systematically  inducted  into  the  responsi- 
bilities of  the  attainment  of  these  standards  and  ideals  of  the  system. 
It  is  certainly  a  poor  way  of  learning  that  allows  the  wrong  thing 
to  be  done  at  all,  unless,  through  striking  contrast,  the  wrong 
thing  may  lead  to  the  right  one.  It  is  absurd  to  believe  that  the 
young  inexperienced  teacher,  if  called  upon  to  assume  all  of  the 
teacher's  responsibilities  at  once,  can  actually  carry  them  all  with 
equal  success.  It  is  more  probable  that  some  of  them  will  be 
slighted,  and  in  the  slighting  will  bring  contempt  as  a  logical  result. 
A  contempt  for  a  responsibility,  once  engendered  is  hard  to  eradi- 
cate and  for  the  good  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  the  system  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  such  an  eventuality.  A  gradual 
induction  into  the  responsibilities  which  he  is  to  assume  allows 
each  new  responsibility  to  be  gained  in  a  healthy  way.  The  associa- 
tion of  the  novice  teacher  with  experienced  teachers,  teachers  who 
have  gained  their  mastery  over  these  problems  and  have  in  the 
trial  and  error  process  lost  some  of  their  earlier  idealism,  while 
being  sane  in  their  own  judgments,  may  give  the  younger  teachers 
perspectives  which,  lacking  the  background  of  the  older  teachers, 
are  inimical  to  success.  Thus  the  practice  of  placing  teachers  in 
an  environment  of  more  experienced  teachers  as  a  method  of  help- 
ing them  to  learn  more  easily  their  necessary  skills  has  possibilities 
full  of  danger  that  it  is  well  to  avoid. 

For  this  reason  the  first  requisite  would  seem  to  consist  in 
separating  the  novice  from  the  other  teachers  in  the  system,  and 
giving  him  not  only  a  specialized  opportunity  to  acquire  the  tech- 
nique but  an  opportunity  to  acquire  it  separated  from  the  more 
experienced  teachers  in  the  system.  The  scheme  of  segregation 
that  has  been  worked  out  in  Buffalo  (see  pp.  79-80)  seems  therefore 
to  be  a  step  in  the  right  direction,  because,  during  the  time  that 


94  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

the  novice  is  gaining  the  skill  that  will  enable  him  to  stand  alone, 
he  is  separated  from  the  other  teachers  in  status  as  well  as  in  salary. 
He  is  distinctly  and  unequivocally  an  apprentice. 

A  second  reason  for  segregation  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  prob- 
lems that  the  young  teachers  have  to  work  out  for  themselves 
have  more  in  common  with  those  of  other  young  teachers  like 
themselves  than  they  have  in  common  with  the  problems  of  the 
more  experienced  teachers.  For  this  reason,  again,  the  practice 
with  respect  to  placing  inexperienced  teachers  with  experienced 
teachers  seems  to  be  unsound.  The  diffidence  that  the  novices 
might  feel  in  contact  with  the  more  experienced  teachers  they 
would  not  feel  for  others  like  themselves.  Problems  that  older 
and  more  experienced  teachers  would  pass  by,  or  not  understand 
as  problems,  would  be  threshed  out  under  especially  competent 
and  sympathetic  leadership  by  a  group  of  young  teachers  who 
were  all  facing  the  same  problem, — an  advantage  that  would  be 
missed  if  the  novice  were  in  a  different  sort  of  group.  The  con- 
tacts, social  and  educational,  that  the  young  teacher  would  make 
with  others  like  himself  would  seem  to  make  the  period  of  segrega- 
tion intensely  valuable  to  the  novice  in  the  acquisition  of  his  teach- 
ing skill.  To  the  school  system  as  well  this  exchange  of  ideas  and 
development  of  problems  that  would  otherwise  remain  unsolved 
by  groups  would  obviously  be  of  great  value. 

In  consideration  of  the  laws  of  habit  formation  the  second 
requisite  is  a  master  teacher  to  watch  closely  the  efforts  of  the 
novice.  This  contact  must  be  constant,  sympathetic,  cordial, 
and  above  all,  discerning.  It  is  this  ability  that  makes  the  master 
training  teacher. 

Mr.  Pillsbury  writes: 

Compare  the  experience  of  a  teacher  under  these  conditions  [unsegregated, 
without  the  master  teacher,  and  partially  supervised]  with  that  of  the  proba- 
tioner at  a  teacher-center.  Here  she  is  associated  with  a  group  which  is  on  an 
equal  footing  with  herself.  She  feels  perfectly  free  to  discuss  her  difficulties 
because  she  knows  that  all  the  other  teachers  are  going  through  exactly  the 
same  experiences,  and  she  has  in  the  supervisory  teacher  a  woman  of  strong 
personality,  high  ideals,  big  sympathies,  wide  experience,  unusual  skill  in 
teaching.  Her  ambitions  are  fostered,  her  ideas  sympathetically  considered, 
her  difficulties  removed.  She  has  a  friend,  an  advisor  to  whom  she  can  go 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  95 

with  all  her  troubles,  who  is,  in  fact,  there  for  precisely  that  purpose.     Under 
these  conditions,  she  cannot  help  but  grow.1 

The  presence  of  the  master  teacher  is  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
stant supervision  and  help.  It  is  clearly  consistent  with  recognized 
pedagogical  principles  that  problems  be  solved  when  they  are 
brought  up  in  order  that  solutions  of  direct  import  may  be  evolved. 

The  period  of  practice  teaching  in  the  normal  school  is  a 
necessary  adjunct  to  the  normal-school  training,  as  it  gives  a 
first  hand  knowledge  of  some  of  the  major  problems  that  the 
young  teacher  will  have  to  face  in  his  independent  work  with  the 
teaching  of  children.  It  cannot  replace,  however,  the  actual  ex- 
perience and  contacts  which  a  teacher  makes  in  actual  teaching. 
Therefore  this  period  of  segregation  must  not  be  like  that  of  the 
practice  school,  with  short  periods  of  teaching,  with  groups  of 
children  not  primarily  responsible  to  the  student  teacher  in  matters 
of  discipline  and  correction,  with  isolated  units  of  subject-matter 
to  be  taught,  and  with  little  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  novice 
for  the  results  that  his  teaching  obtains.  The  period  of  segrega- 
tion must  be  one  in  which  are  maintained  actual  school-room 
conditions,  not  merely  somewhat  like,  but  identical  in  every 
essential  respect  with,  those  that  the  teacher  will  surely  experience 
in  that  system.  The  novice  must  assume  an  increasing  responsib- 
ility for  the  class  instruction,  for  discipline  in  the  class-room,  for 
the  attainment  of  school  standards,  for  participation  in  the  affairs 
in  the  school,  for  the  relationships  with  parents  and  with  the  public, 
and  for  all  the  details  of  school  work  and  school  records  for  which 
the  regular  teacher  in  any  of  the  other  schools  in  the  system  is 
normally  held  responsible.  The  master  teacher  is  present,  as 
frequently  as  may  be  necessary,  to  prevent  mistakes  which  might 
be  costly  from  the  standpoint  either  of  their  effect  on  the  novice 
or  of  their  effect  on  the  pupils,  and  he  is  there  to  promote  and  not 
to  prevent  growth. 

A  further  necessity  in  the  development  of  skill  in  teaching  for 
the  novice  is  the  observation  of  the  best  teaching  that  the  system 
can  boast.  To  see  truly  artistic  teaching  is  the  rightful  privilege 
of  every  young  teacher,  and  the  third  requisite  in  the  acquisition 
of  teaching  skills.  It  has  long  been  recognized  that  observation 


,  W.  Howard,  The  Buffalo  Plan  of  Teacher  Training,  Elementary  School  Journal 
Vol.  XXI,  No.  8,  April,  1921,  p.  602. 


96  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

of  a  perfunctory  type  or  merely  for  the  purpose  of  social  visiting 
does  not  accomplish  the  desired  results.  The  novice  must  know, 
first,  what  he  is  to  see  taught,  and  knowing  that,  must  plan  how 
he  would  teach  it.  A  prime  purpose  of  the  observation  may  well 
be  to  show  the  young  teacher  the  differences  in  the  way  he  had 
planned  to  teach  and  the  way  that  the  unit  of  work  is  actually 
taught  by  an  artist  teacher,  The  novice  must  analyze  these 
differences  and  definitely  see  in  what  way  the  work  observed  is 
better  than  his  own  plans  would  have  achieved.  This  gives  a 
grounding  for  conscious  imitation  on  the  part  of  the  young  teacher, 
and  a  basis  for  a  change  in  action.1  It  is  this  final  result,  a  change 
in  action  on  the  part  of  the  young  teacher,  that  is  the  ultimate 
goal.  When  observation  is  made  with  definite  purpose,  when  it 
is  made  under  actual  conditions,  when  there  is  definite  analysis 
of  what  has  been  observed,  and  conscious  imitation  that  its  virtues 
may  be  reproduced  there  will  clearly  be  in  observation  that  which 
will  tend  to  complement  the  actual  experience  of  the  novice  in  his 
efforts  to  acquire  teaching  skills  and  teaching  technique. 

These,  then,  are  considered  necessary  to  the  proper  acquisi- 
tion of  teaching  skills  by  the  young  teacher  in  the  school  system : 
(a)  the  separation  from  the  other  more  experienced  teachers  in  the 
school  system;  (b)  the  observation,  under  natural  conditions,  of 
the  most  artistic  teachers  that  the  system  can  produce;  (c)  the 
assumption  of  all  the  responsibility  that  the  young  teachers  are 
able  to  carry  just  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  carry  it;  (d)  the  con- 
stant supervision  and  help  of  master  teachers;  (e)  the  teaching 
of  children  under  conditions  identical  with  those  that  prevail  in 
the  school  system;  and  (f)  the  association  of  novices  chiefly  with 
novices  during  the  segregation  period. 

The  problem  of  the  gaining  of  skill  by  the  experienced  teacher 
is  the  same  as  with  the  younger  teacher,  the  forming  of  the  right 
habits  of  action.  It  differs  in  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  discover 
just  what  is  the  right  action,  and  because  of  the  fixed  but  inadequate 
habits  which  the  experienced  teacher  has.  When  an  action  be- 
comes habitual  it  becomes  unconscious.  The  real  problem  is 
therefore  to  make  the  teacher,  first,  self-critical  or  self-conscious 


*See  Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  II,  The  Psychology  of  Learning.     "Learning 
by  Analysis  and  Selection."  pp.  35-46. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  97 

of  his  bad  habits,  then,  secondly,  desirous  of  making  the  new  habit, 
and  thirdly,  capable  of  making  the  change. 

In  order  to  achieve  these  ends  the  prime  necessity  is  that  the 
school  system  shall  reserve  to  itself  the  right  so  to  model  itself, 
and  to  make  such  modifications  as  seem  wise  and  proper.  This 
right  implies  certain  responsibilities,  namely:  (a)  to  fix  the  stand- 
ards of  educational  content  within  the  city  system;  (b)  to  require 
the  attainment  of  these  minimal  standards;  and  (c)  to  provide  the 
necessary  machinery  to  insure  their  attainment.  Boards  of  Educa- 
tion exercise  this  right  when  they  provide  for  the  inspection  of 
schools  and  when  they  provide  for  the  supervision  of  the  teachers 
in  the  schools. 

Supervisory  control,  [says  Dr.  E.  C.  Elliott,]  is  concerned  with  what 
should  be  taught;  to  whom,  by  whom,  how,  and  to  what  purpose.  It  is  profes- 
sional and  technical.  It  aims  to  establish  and  to  maintain  for  the  individual 
teacher  and  the  individual  pupil  standards  of  worth  and  attainment.  It  is 
concerned,  primarily  not  with  the  machinery  of  education,  but  with  the 
character  and  worth  of  its  products.  It  centers  its  effort  upon  individuals. 
It  is  emphatically  constructive,  rather  than  merely  executive.  For  its  best 
results  it  demands  the  completest  cooperation  between  the  members  of  the 
teaching  and  supervisory  staffs.  For  the  proper  exercise  of  this  form  of  con- 
trol superintendents,  directors,  and  principals  should  be  held  directly  re- 
sponsible and  should  be  given  entire  freedom  of  action.  Supervisory  control 
does  not  lie  within  the  legitimate  province  of  the  Board  of  Education  or  of 
other  municipal  boards  and  officers. 

Inspectorial  Control  is  similar  in  nature  to  supervisory  control,  yet  to  be 
distinguished  from  it.  It  is,  also,  special  in  character,  and  is  based  upon 
expert  knowledge  of  the  conditions  and  technique  of  successful  and  efficient 
instruction.  It  differs  from  the  supervisory  activity  in  that  its  primary  purpose 
is  not  personal,  constructive  service.  Its  aim  is  toward  an  impersonal,  objec- 
tive measurement  of  the  results  and  worth  of  the  school.  It  serves  to  appraise 
the  products  of  the  administrative  organization  and  supervisory  direction,  and 
on  the  basis  of  this  appraisal  to  propose  new  standards  and  new  methods. 
Thus,  narrowly  interpreted,  an  inspector's  special  function  is  to  pass  upon 
worth  and  efficiency.  A  supervisor  must  do  this  and  more;  he  must  raise  the 
worth  and  increase  the  efficiency.1 

Except  within  wide  limits,  or  in  a  very  few  specific  cases  not 
representative  of  school  work  as  a  whole,  it  would  seem  that  the 
system  cannot  helpfully  fix  how  any  particular  unit  of  the  content 
of  its  curriculum  shall  be  taught.  This  is  the  clear  province  of  the 
individual  teacher, — the  vital  privilege  that  marks  the  difference 

Elliott,  E.  C.,  City  School  Supervision,  Yonkers,  World  Book  Company,  1914,  p.  12. 


98  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

between  an  artisan  and  an  artist.  The  limit  of  compulsion  in  this 
respect  should  have  been  reached  when  the  course  of  study  has 
been  made  both  objective  and  suggestive,  and  has  fixed  within 
certain  limits  the  standards  of  educational  content.  The  school 
system,  in  determining  standards,  however,  should  go  the  necessary 
step  further  and  require  of  all  teachers,  as  a  part  of  the  service  for 
which  they  are  employed  by  the  public,  the  attainment  of  these 
minimal  standards,  at  least  until  such  time  as  it  can  confidently 
rely  on  the  teacher  in  full.  A  discussion  of  this  follows  in  a  later 
section.  To  do  this,  makes  necessary  a  judgment  as  to  the  degree 
to  which  the  standards  set  up  have  been  attained — a  judgment 
that  will  be  satisfactory  to  the  teacher  if  possible,  entirely  imper- 
sonal, objective  in  every  sense,  uniform  for  all  teachers,  dependable 
in  high  degree,  and  capable  of  adjustment  as  the  need  arises. 
This  judgment  must  be  satisfactory  to  the  teacher  in  the  sense 
that  the  teacher  must  recognize  it  as  eminently  fair  and  just.  It 
must  be  impersonal  in  the  sense  that  the  personal  bias  of  any 
individual  cannot  enter  into  that  judgment  and  that  it  would 
be  exactly  the  same  for  any  other  teacher  in  a  like  situation.  It 
must  be  objective  so  that  all  teachers  may  be  able  to  interpret  it 
in  the  same  way  and  not  according  to  individual  understanding 
or  individual  interpretations  of  certain  abstract  qualities.  It 
must  be  uniform  for  all  teachers  to  the  end  that  all  teachers  may 
accept  it.  It  must  be  dependable,  so  that  all  teachers  may  trust 
it.  It  must  be  capable  of  adjustment  so  that  there  may  be  a  way 
open  for  progress  in  the  system,  growth  in  the  teachers,  and 
adaptability  to  greater  knowledge  or  more  recent  needs. 

The  limitations  of  this  judgment  are:  (a)  that  it  cannot  be 
entirely  a  rating  scale  for  the  analysis  of  a  teacher's  personality, 
because  it  measures  only  one  desirable  attribute  of  teaching  ability; 
and  (b)  it  should  not  be  used  as  the  sole  measure  of  fitness  for 
promotion  within  the  school  system  since  it  involves  only  some  of 
the  elements  that  should  be  recognized  for  such  promotion.  It  is 
merely  an  inspectorial  judgment,  but  as  such  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  in  the  development  of  skill  in  the  teacher. 

Of  the  standards  there  are  at  least  two  types  that  may  be  fixed 
for  the  teacher  to  achieve.  The  first  is  that  of  content.  The 
school  is  bound  by  time  limits  set  by  the  school  day,  the  school 
year,  and  the  elementary  school  period.  It  is  entirely  necessary 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  99 

and  universally  recognized  as  necessary,  that  the  materials  of  the 
elementary  school  education  be  apportioned  carefully.  From  this 
results  the  standards  that  the  school  system  can  set  up  with  ref- 
erence to  the  content  of  the  course  of  study,  and  the  placing  of 
the  various  units  of  this  course  of  study  in  their  proper  relation- 
ships within  the  curriculum.  The  second  type  of  standard  is  that 
of  rate.  This  is  less  uniformly  recognized,  but  equally  important. 
The  rate  at  which  the  several  units  of  the  school  curriculum  shall 
be  covered  as  a  standard  for  the  guidance  and  attainment  of  the 
teacher  has  a  definite  and  important  bearing  on  his  improvement 
in  skills,  as  it  is  through  comparison  with  this  standard  that  the 
judgment  above  discussed  becomes  of  greatest  value. 

The  necessary  machinery  for  the  attainment  of  the  standards 
consists,  first,  of  provision  for  the  measurement  of  the  results  of 
teaching.  This  becomes  the  objective  and  acceptable  judgment 
that  is  desired.  It  involves,  secondly,  provision  for  the  interpreta- 
tion of  these  results.  Thirdly,  it  means  provision  for  the  diagnosis 
of  the  reasons  which  have  been  found  to  make  the  standards  not 
attained,  and  fourthly,  provision  for  the  correction  of  the  diagnosed 
difficulties. 

Dr.  McCall  cites  the  following  as  his  conception  of 

the  fundamental  assumptions  underlying  a  scientific  procedure  for  rating  and 
promoting  teachers  and  supervisors.  . 

1.  The  pupil  is  the  center  of  gravity  or  the  sun  of  the  educational  sys- 
tem.    Teachers  are  satellites  of  this  sun  and  supervisors  are  moons  of  the 
satellites. 

2.  All  the  paraphernalia  of  education  exist  for  just  one  purpose,  to  make 
desirable  changes  in  pupils. 

3.  The  worth  of  these  paraphernalia  can  be  measured  in  just  one  way, 
by  determining  how  many  desirable  changes  they  make  in  pupils. 

4.  Hence  the  only  just  basis  for  selecting  and  promoting  teachers  is  the 
changes  made  in  the  pupils. 

5.  Teachers  are  at  present  selected  and  promoted  primarily  on  the  basis 
of  their  attributes,  such  as  intelligence,  personality,  physical  appearancer 
voice,  ability  in  penmanship  and  the  like. 

6.  No  one  has  demonstrated  just  what  causal  relationship,  if  any,  exists 
between  possession  of  these  various  attributes  and  desirable  changes  in  pupils. 
The  relation  between  possession  of  certain  attributes  and  tne  degree  of  favor 
of  a  teacher  in  the  inspector's  eyes  is  more  evident.     . 

7.  Scientific  measurement  itself  is  fair  only  when  we  measure  the  amount 
of  desirable  change  produced  in  pupils  by  a  given  teacher.     The  measurement 
of  change  requires  both  initial  and  final  tests.     . 


100  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

8.  Scientific  measurement  is  fair  only  when  we  measure  amount  of  change 
produced  in  a  standard  time.     This  requirement  can  be  satisfied. 

9.  Scientific  measurement  is  fair  only  when  we  measure  the  amount  of 
change  in  standard  pupils.     The  Accomplishment  Quotient     .      .      .     is  a 
device  for  converting  pupils,  no  matter  what  their  intelligence,  into  standard 
pupils. 

10.  Scientific  measurement  is  fair  only  when  the  measurement  is  com- 
plete.    Absolute  completeness  would  require  a  measurement  of  the  amount 
of  changes  made  in  children's  purposes  as  well  as  their  abilities.     Absolute 
completeness  is  of  course  impossible  and  is  in  fact  not  necessary;  partly  be- 
cause a  chance  sampling  of  the  changes  made  will  be  thorough  enough,  and 
partly  because  teachers'  skill  in  making  desirable  changes  in,  say,  reading,  is 
probably  positively  correlated  with  their  skill  in  making  desirable  changes  in, 
say,   arithmetic.1 

Provision  for  the  measurement  of  the  results  of  teaching 
involves  the  testing  of  the  children  at  the  beginning  of  a  certain 
period,  the  period  in  which  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  is  to  be 
measured.  This  gives  a  beginning  point  from  which  to  compare 
and  also  gives  the  teacher  a  definite  knowledge  of  what  is  expected 
from  him,  starting  at  that  point  thus  found.  It  later  involves 
the  testing  of  the  children  again  at  the  end  of  the  period  in  question. 
This  gives  an  end  point.  The  difference  in  the  achievement  of 
the  children,  balanced  against  the  requirements  of  the  system,  with 
due  regard  for  the  ability  of  the  pupils  involved,  gives  an  objective 
measurement  of  the  degree  of  success  of  the  work  of  the  teacher. 
It  shows  the  absolute  achievement  of  the  children,  and  gives  the 
data  that  are  necessary  in  planning  the  future  work  of  those 
children;  it  gives  the  relative  achievement  of  the  children,  which 
is  a  measure  of  the  success  of  the  teacher  in  reaching  the  require- 
ments of  the  school  system;  and  it  shows  where  the  teacher  has 
exceeded  those  requirements,  as  well  as  where  he  has  not  reached 
them. 

The  greater  accuracy  of  the  standard  school  tests  as  they 
have  been  developed  within  the  past  few  years  makes  the  use  of 
them  in  this  connection,  even  though  an  indirect  judgment,  a  far 
more  accurate  one  than  has  ever  been  possible  before.  McCall 
writes : 

The  purpose  of  certain  methods  and  materials  is  to  help  the  pupil  grow 
toward  a  certain  goal.  Do  the  methods  employed  accomplish  their  purpose? 
We  cannot  tell  without  employing  measurement.  For  aught  we  know,  the 

'McCall,  W.  A.,  How  to  Measure  in  Education,  MacMillan  Co.,  New  York,  1922,  pp.  150-151. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  101 

methods  may  be  actually  vicious.  They  may  be  forming  habits  which  not 
only  do  not  lead  toward  the  goal,  but  which  may  be  building  up  difficulties  for 
another  method  by  a  subsequent  teacher.  It  is  equally  true  that  the  com- 
parative worth  of  different  methods  and  materials  is  unknown  until  their 
effect  upon  the  pupil  is  measureable.  This  means  that  measurement  is  indis- 
pensable to  the  experimental  selection  of  the  most  economical  educational 
conditions.1 

McCall  cites  two  methods  of  measurement  of  education. 
One  of  them  is  the  measurement  of  the  causal  relations  between 
the  educational  surroundings  of  the  pupil  and  the  desired  changes 
in  him,  and  the  other  the  direct  measurement  of  the  changes  in 
the  pupil.  He  makes  the  analogy  with  the  levers,  fulcra,  etc., 
used  in  the  lifting  of  the  physical  weight  in  the  one  case  and  the 
determination  as  to  whether  or  not  the  weight  has  been  actually 
lifted  in  the  second  case.  He  continues: 

We  certainly  cannot  claim  to  know  the  exact  causal  relation  between 
denned  changes  in  pupils,  and  most  of  the  paraphernalia  with  which  the  pupil 
is  now  surrounded.  In  spite  of  our  ignorance  of  these  causal  relations,  the 
chief  method  of  supervision  at  present  is  to  attempt  to  judge  the  presence  or 
absence  or  amount  of  presence  of  these  levers  and  fulcra.2 

Again  he  says: 

There  seems  to  be  a  feeling  that  tests  favor  the  so-called  mechanical  or 
conservative  rather  than  radical  methods  in  education.  When  properly  used, 
they  favor  neither  one.  Ultimately  tests  will  be  the  judge  to  give  an  impartial 
decision  as  to  which  method  is  the  more  effective.  Until  scientific  measure- 
ment is  extended,  however,  no  decision  between  the  two  methods  can  be 
reached,  because  present  tests  cannot  measure  some  of  the  most  important 
aims  of  both  educational  conservatives  and  radicals.  Suffice  it  to  state  here 
that  present  standard  tests  when  improperly  used  may  easily  cause  a  greater 
mechanization  of  education,  but  when  properly  used  they  may  easily  be  the 
salvation  of  education  from  too  great  a  mechanization.3 

Even  in  their  present  state  their  use  under  right  conditions, 
plus  the  guarding  that  is  necessary  to  prevent  mechanization, 
forms  perhaps  the  best  impersonal,  objective  judgment  or  measure- 
ment of  a  teacher's  success  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge. 

Provision  for  the  interpretation  of  the  results  of  the  measure- 
ment is  merely  provision  for  the  analysis  and  tabulation  of  the 

'McCall,  W.  A.,  op.  cit.,  p.  11-12. 
*Ibid.,  p.  13. 
*Ibid.,  p.  17. 


102  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

resulting  data  for  the  greater  convenience  of  the  teacher  in  self- 
criticism,  and  of  the  supervisory  staff  in  diagnosis. 

Provision  for  the  diagnosis  of  the  results  of  the  measurement 
takes  the  measurement  at  that  point  out  of  the  purely  inspectorial 
field  and  into  the  field  of  professional  supervision.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  locating  the  points  where  the  teacher  needs  to  develop 
additional  skills.  It  is  a  means  of  making  a  teacher  conscious  of 
his  difficulties  and  self  critical  of  his  procedure.  Diagnosis  may 
reveal  a  very  simple  condition  the  correction  of  which  is  merely  a 
matter  of  making  the  teacher  conscious  of  the  condition.  It  may 
be  a  very  complicated  condition  the  correction  of  which  is  difficult. 
It  may  be  obvious  or  it  may  be  intangible.  Whatever  it  is,  it  can 
rarely  be  corrected  until  it  is  brought  into  the  consciousness  of  the 
teacher  and  a  method  worked  out  by  the  teacher  or  by  others  in 
conjunction  with  him,  which  actually  does  correct  the  difficulty. 

There  must,  therefore,  be  provision  for  the  correction  of  the 
difficulties  that  are  revealed  by  the  diagnosis  of  the  measurements. 
At  the  present  time,  with  the  small  knowledge  of  how  they  may 
best  be  corrected  in  individual  cases,  experimentation  forms  the 
chief  source  of  power.  The  method  of  experimentation,  the  trying 
of  various  methods  of  attack  under  controlled  conditions,  is  the 
solution  to  the  problem  that  has  been  worked  our  successfully  in 
the  Detroit  system. 

Taken  by  itself,  without  reference  to  anything  else  that  the 
teacher  may  be  doing,  and  continued  by  the  school  system  after 
a  teacher  has  approached  a  point  of  diminishing  improvement  in 
his  skills,  this  plan  would  undoubtedly  serve  as  a  mechanizing 
instrument.  After  a  certain  time  the  criticism  engendered  by  it 
would  probably  be  captious  and  in  the  main  destructive.  The 
teacher  might  also  be  encouraged  to  attain  merely  the  minimal 
standards  laid  down,  thus  effectually  deadening  the  teaching  in 
the  class-room.  The  school  system  should  appreciate  this  danger, 
at  the  same  time  recognizing  the  potential  values  inherent  in  the 
procedure,  and  it  should  take  steps  to  offset  the  danger,  and  to 
realize  the  full  values.  Testing  may  be  utilized  in  many  different 
ways,  of  which  the  way  here  advocated  is  only  one.  It  is  assumed 
that  after  a  teacher  has  appreciated  the  value  of  testing  in  other 
ways  he  will  not  only  be  willing  but  anxious  to  have  tests  used  for 
the  benefit  of  his  children.  This  will  of  course  improve  the  quality 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  103 

of  his  class  instruction.  Testing  may  be  utilized  to  prevent  over- 
mechanization  of  school  work  as  well  as  promote  it.  Thus  if  the 
tests  are  used  to  indicate  the  maximum  of  skills  desired  in  children, 
rather  than  the  minimum  of  these  skills,  tests  may  act  to  prevent 
undue  emphasis  on  these  phases. 

The  purpose  of  this  plan  is  constructive  aid  to  the  teacher  in 
the  perfection  of  desirable  skills,  not  solely  inspectorial  criticism. 
Therefore,  when  the  teacher  reaches  a  satisfactory  stage  in  the 
development  of  his  skills  he  should  be  relieved  of  involuntary 
adherence.  This  in  itself  would  form  a  desirable  incentive  to  the 
teacher  to  improve,  and  is  one  safeguard  that  the  school  system 
might  employ.  A  second  safeguard  is  proposed  in  a  later  section 
whereby  this  improvement  in  skills  is  supplemented,  during  the 
same  period  that  it  is  taking  place,  by  a  voluntary  improvement 
in  further  ways. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  INCREASE  OF  MASTERY  OF  SUB- 
JECT-MATTER WITH  THE  TEACHER  IN  SERVICE 

The  problem  of  the  increase  of  mastery  of  subject-matter  by 
teachers  has  been  an  insistant  one,  and  at  least  indirectly  recog- 
nized for  many  years.  Teachers  and  boards  of  education  have 
felt  it  and  the  problem  is  intimately  connected  with  the  growth  of 
the  teachers'  colleges,  university  departments  of  education,  and 
other  agencies. 

The  indirect  evidence  of  its  insistence  and  its  importance  if 
reflected  unmistakably  in  the  data  presented  in  this  study.  Even 
a  casual  analysis  of  the  data  reveals  the  almost  overwhelming 
preponderance  of  recognition  which  is  attached  by  various  school 
systems  in  this  country  to  this  phase  of  the  improvement  of  the 
teacher.  In  the  development  of  study  groups,  of  special  classes  for 
special  instruction,  of  university-extension  classes,  of  normal- 
school  extension  classes;  in  the  growth  of  correspondence  study 
courses,  of  state  extension  classes,  and  similar  classes  under  boards 
of  education;  in  the  work  of  Chautauquas,  in  teachers'  meetings, 
in  institutes,  and  teachers'  associations;  in  clubs  of  all  sorts, 
specialized  and  departmental;  in  the  inducements  and  incentives 
for  study  that  are  offered  by  boards  of  education;  in  the  salary 
schedules  and  in  individual  study;  in  all  these  is  evidenced  not 


104  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

only  the  need  of  teachers  for  further  study  in  subject-matter 
fields,  but  also  the  remarkably  varied  measures  that  have  been 
taken  to  provide  for  teachers  the  educational  opportunities  they 
want  and  need. 

There  is  also  evidence,  direct  evidence,  of  the  need,  in  the 
reports  of  superintendents  of  schools.  One  aspect  is  shown  is 
the  following  quotations : 

A  teacher's  period  of  service  may  extend  over  manjr  years.  During  that 
time  radical  changes  in  educational  method  and  practice  may  take  place. 
It  is  very  desirable  that  all  teachers  should  keep  abreast  of  the  times  and 
maintain  a  high  degree  of  efficiency.  This  can  only  be  done  through  outside 
study,  which  demands  both  time  and  money.  (Providence,  R.  I.,  1915-16, 
p.  61.) 

A  feature  of  the  salary  schedule  in  Johnstown,  Pa.,  (1920, 
p.  50,  see  p.  48)  expresses  the  same  need. 

So  also  in  Wheeling,  W.  Va.: 

A  teacher's  duty  is  unquestionably  to  keep  abreast  of  the  best  thought 
and  practice  of  the  day  in  her  line  of  work.  If  there  is  one  thing  evident  above 
all  others  in  the  educational  world  it  is  that  not  only  the  form  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  studies  but  the  methods  of  teaching  them  have  changed.  And  we 
must  change  with  them.  (1906,  p.  31.) 

A  different  idea  is  contained  in  the  following: 

To  be  strong  stimulating  teachers,  it  is  not  enough  to  have  once  known 
the  subject-matter  of  the  course  of  study.  Teachers  must  continually  renew 
their  knowledge  of  the  subject-matter  they  are  teaching  and  of  the  subject- 
matter  their  pupils  have  been  taught  before  coming  to  them,  as  well  as  the 
subject-matter  they  will  be  taught  after  promotion.  Teachers  must  again 
and  again  re-study  the  subjects  in  the  light  of  new  knowledge  and  with  a  view 
of  better  adapting  their  teaching  to  their  pupils.  (Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12, 
p.  34.) 

The  same  writer  says  later: 

.  it  is  easier  to  reconcile  teachers  to  being  entertained  by  addresses 
by  able  speakers  from  the  different  walks  of  life,  on  general  subjects  or  on  novel 
educational  subjects  than  to  reconcile  them  to  a  critical  study  of  the  subject- 
matter  and  methods  of  the  common  branches.  (Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12, 
p.  38.) 

The  study  that  teachers  make  in  order  to  increase  their 
knowledge  of  subject-matter  seems  to  be  profoundly  influenced 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  105 

by  several  factors.     The  most  obvious  factor  is  the  courses  that 
are  offered.     Superintendent  Downes  reports  that: 

Two  hundred  and  fifty,  or  seventy-eight  per  cent,  of  the  three  hundred 
twenty-two  teachers  of  the  city,  enrolled  in  the  class  in  applied  psychology 
conducted  during  the  winter.  .  .  .  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1916,  p.  17.) 

It  seems  probable  that  if  more  courses  were  offered  in  this 
case  fewer  teachers  would  have  taken  this  particular  one.  Super- 
intendent Boyer  writes  similarly.  (Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  1916, 
p.  20  quoted  p.  20.) 

As  elements  of  this  factor  the  availability  of  agencies,  such 
as  schools,  colleges  and  universities,  which  offer  work  for  teachers, 
the  availability  of  instructors  qualified  to  give  it,  and  the  availa- 
bility of  books,  magazines,  and  other  materials,  are  important 
considerations  in  the  determination  of  what  is  offered. 

A  second  factor  of  large  influence  is  the  inducements  that 
are  offered  to  teachers  to  do  this  type  of  work.  The  results  of  the 
bonus  that  was  offered  for  summer  session  attendance  at  Auburn, 
N.  Y.,  are  especially  instructive.  (Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1918-19,  p.  23 — 
quoted  p.  23.) 

Credits  that  may  be  used  toward  the  gaining  of  collegiate 
degrees  play  no  small  part  as  an  element  of  this  factor.  Super- 
intendent Fitzgerald  writes: 

The  teacher     .      .      .     receives  credit  from  the  college  for  attending 
the  lectures  (which  credit  counts  towards  a  degree  from  that  college).     . 
(Cambridge,   Mass.,    1920,   p.    17.) 

Assistant  Superintendent  Gannon  reports  similarly.  (Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  1919,  p.  706  (34),  quoted  p.  24.) 

A  third  element  of  this  factor  is  the  credit  or  allowance  which 
certain  Boards  of  Education  make  toward  increases  in  salaries 
for  satisfactorily  completed  study.  (Beverly,  Mass.,  1918,  p.  8 
quoted  p.  51.) 

A  third  factor  consists  in  the  requirements  that  are  made 
relative  to  the  advanced  study.  In  some  places  professional  im- 
provement is  mandatory,  as  in  Johnstown,  Pa.  and  Portland, 
Ore.  (See  pp.  47  and  48.)  In  most  cases,  however  the  require- 
ment is  less  definite  and  is  influenced  largely  by  the  judgment  of 


106  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

the  superintendent  of  schools,  or  by  the  board  of  education.  (See 
Bulletin  of  General  Information,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  quoted  p.  55.) 

A  fourth  factor  of  influence  is  what  or  how  much  the  teachers 
can  afford.  The  evidence  of  this  type  is  mainly  negative  and  con- 
sists largely  in  the  efforts  that  teachers  make  to  bring  speakers 
and  lecturers  to  their  cities,  in  the  efforts  to  secure  the  cooperation 
of  the  public  in  these  enterprises,  and  in  the  success  of  the  libraries, 
clubs  for  the  exchange  of  magazines  and  similar  agencies. 

A  fifth  factor  which  influences  the  work  that  teachers  actually 
do  is  their  own  interest  or  desire.  This  factor  operates  either  only 
when  all  of  the  other  factors  are  not  present,  or  when  the  other 
factors,  or  some  of  them,  are  ignored.  There  is  no  direct  proof  of 
this,  but  if  there  are  no  local  regulations  as  to  the  work  which  will 
result  in  promotion,  or  if  the  work  that  is  given  locally  is  not  taken 
merely  because  it  is  offered,  or  if  the  work  is  not  taken  because  it  is 
required,  or  if  the  teacher  can  afford  to  go  to  the  place  where 
certain  work  is  given,  the  work  that  is  actually  taken  is  in  all 
probability  the  work  that  the  teacher  wants. 

The  work  that  the  teachers  take  reveals  their  actual  needs 
in  various  ways,  but  chiefly  through  the  continued  existence  of 
the  various  types  of  work.  It  also  reveals  the  teachers'  needs  as 
lecturers  conceive  of  them,  or  the  needs  that  educational  writers 
and  publishers  believe  that  teachers  have;  it  reveals  the  needs  of 
teachers  as  seen  by  boards  of  education  or  other  controlling  agen- 
cies; and  it  reveals  what  colleges,  universities  and  normal  schools 
believe  that  teachers  want.  It  is  all  merely  a  qualitative  revela- 
tion, however.  It  is  not  quantitative  in  any  degree.  Until  by 
actual  trial  and  experimentation  as  to  the  relationship  of  these 
needs  to  the  actual  results  of  efforts  to  meet  them  as  measured  by 
the  improvement  of  class-room  work,  or  until  some  device  is  avail- 
able for  discovering  the  proportion  of  teachers  that  have  different 
types  of  needs,  there  can  be  no  absolute  determination.  All  that 
is  possible  at  the  present  time  is  a  relative  determination,  and  this 
is  in  progress  in  a  definite  way  in  several  cities  in  this  country, 
notably  in  Cincinnati,  Detroit,  Cleveland  and  St.  Louis.  (See 
pp.  14  ff.) 

A  provisional  classification  of  the  needs  of  the  teachers  as 
far  as  they  may  be  identified  in  this  study  may  be  formulated  as 
follows : 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  107 

TYPE     1.     SUBJECT-MATTER  EXTENSION 

This  means  the  enrichment  of  the  subject-matter  knowledge 
of  a  teacher  with  respect  to  content  of  the  elementary-school 
curriculum.  A  large  part  of  the  work  that  teachers  take  under 
the  direction  of  boards  of  education  is  of  this  type.  (See  Water- 
bury,  Conn.,  1918,  p.  45,  quoted  p.  35,  and  Muskogee,  Okla., 
1910-11,  p.  20,  quoted  p.  38.) 

TYPE    2.    THE  TECHNICAL  ASPECTS  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER 
AND  SUBJECT-MATTER  PRESENTATION  AND  INSTRUCTION 

The  field  which  this  covers  is  relatively  narrow  at  the  present 
time  but  the  field  is  constantly  being  added  to  with  fresh  accessions 
to  our  available  knowledge.  On  the  side  of  the  technical  aspects 
there  is  the  psychology  of  the  special  subjects,  such  as  the  psy- 
chologies of  reading,  spelling  and  arithmetic,  all  of  which  are  fairly 
well  developed.  Further  development  in  the  psychology  of  such 
subjects  as  literature,  geography,  history,  civics  and  the  industrial 
arts  may  be  expected  in  the  near  future.  On  the  side  of  subject- 
matter  presentation  and  instruction  there  is  the  already  abundant 
and  rapidly  increasing  mass  of  material  dealing  with  tests  and 
measurements  and  their  relation  to  the  method  of  teaching.  There 
is  further  the  special  and  general  aspects  of  the  field  of  method 
itself.  It  is  this  latter  portion  of  the  whole  field  that  is  best 
represented  at  the  present  time  in  the  work  that  teachers  now  take. 
(See  Olean,  N.  Y.,  1907-11,  p.  26,  quoted  p.  60;  Trenton,  N.  J., 

1918,  p.  39,  quoted  p.  22.) 

TYPE    3.    THE  THEORY  OF  SUBJECT-MATTER  AND  THE 
THEORY  OF  EDUCATION  IN  GENERAL 

Reference  is  here  made  to  courses  in  the  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion, educational  values,  educational  psychology  in  the  broader 
sense,  educational  sociology  and  the  like.  (See  Portland,  Me., 

1919,  p.  9,  quoted  p.  40  and  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  1918-19,  p.  23,  quoted 
p.  60.) 

TYPE    4.     THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  ALREADY  STANDARDIZED 

IN  PRE-SERVICE  EDUCATION 

In  some  cases  the  subject-matter  courses  that  are  given  are 
of  the  same  nature  as  pre-professional  courses.  They  are  given 


108  Improvement  oj  Teachers  in  Service 

for  the  purpose  of  giving  the  teacher  an  elementary  type  of  train- 
ing that  he  has  not  had  before,  or  in  rare  instances,  to  prepare  him 
for  a  different  position  in  the  school  system.  While  they  constitute 
a  certain  type  of  improvement  in  service,  and  under  certain  condi- 
tions as  will  be  later  pointed  out  a  worthy  type,  they  do  not  rep- 
resent this  so  much  as  they  represent  the  acquisition  by  the  teach- 
er of  elements  that  will  qualify  him  for  another  sort  of  position. 
(See  New  York  City,  (2)  1914,  p.  132,  quoted  p.  30) 

TYPE    5.    COURSES  OR  ACTIVITIES  NOT  DIRECTLY  CON- 
NECTED WITH  THE  WORK  OF  THE  TEACHER 

Whether  or  not  these  courses  contribute  to  the  professional 
improvement  of  the  teacher  depends  on  the  attitude  of  the  teacher 
himself,  but  the  three  types  of  courses  or  activities  which  may  be 
included  in  this  group  are  only  distantly  related  to  the  school  work. 
The  three  types  may  be  termed  (a)  academic  courses,  taken  to 
satisfy  the  requirements  for  a  degree,  (b)  general  courses,  taken  for 
their  intrinsic  interest,  and  (c)  those  activities  partaking  of  the 
qualities  of  entertainment.  In  many  cases,  obviously,  the  types 
overlap,  but  they  evidence  a  possible  need  on  the  part  of  teachers, 
and  as  such  find  a  place  in  this  list. 

Of  those  courses  of  the  academic  type,  the  following  have  been 
cited:  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  1916,  p.  33.,  quoted  p.  20:  and  Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  1919,  p.  706  (34)  quoted  p.  24. 

Of  the  courses  or  lectures  of  more  general  character,  probably 
taken  for  their  intrinsic  interest  the  following  have  been  cited: 
Springfield,  Ohio,  1916-17,  p.  60,— quoted  p.  41:  East  Providence, 
R.  I.,  1915,  p.  36,— quoted  p.  41:  and  Williamsport,  Pa.,  1918-19, 
p.  12 — quoted  p.  41. 

The  activities  of  the  third  type  consist  mainly  of  concerts, 
musicals,  and  the  like,  supported  by  the  teachers  and  frequently 
by  the  general  public  as  well. 

It  seems  evident  that  many  teachers,  in  spite  of  little  hope  of 
recognition  of  their  efforts,  try  to  improve  themselves  and  their 
work  by  further  study.  It  is  also  evident  that  a  little  stimulation, 
or  the  pressure  of  the  opinion  of  their  associates,  or  the  official 
recognition  of  such  efforts,  makes  many  more  teachers  anxious 
to  enlarge  their  equipment,  broaden  their  outlook,  and  improve 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  109 

their  teaching.  It  is  highly  inefficient,  and  wasteful  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  best  interests  of  the  public,  for  the  school  system 
not  to  recognize  to  the  fullest  possible  extent  its  duty  and  its 
opportunity  for  stimulating  in  every  possible  way  the  growth  of 
the  teacher  in  service.  The  satisfaction  of  these  needs  by  the 
greatest  number  of  teachers  in  that  proportion  best  suited  to 
the  greatest  improvement  in  their  teaching  should  be  the  aim. 
It  is  clear  that  this  does  not  mean  rapidity  of  attainment  so 
much  as  continuity  of  attainment,  and  variety  of  attainment  so 
proportioned  that  there  accrues  from  it  the  greatest  amount 
of  improvement  obtainable  by  each  teacher. 

The  school  system  is  in  a  strategic  position,  because  it  has  either 
direct  or  indirect  control  so  far  as  its  teachers  are  concerned  over 
practically  all  of  the  factors  which  operate  in  determining  what 
studies  the  teachers  undertake.  The  control  which  it  may  exert 
has  many  phases.  It  may  be  mandatory.  In  itself  mandatory 
control  may  be  direct  or  indirect,  but  in  the  end  both  types  amount 
to  the  same  thing, — namely  the  forcing  of  the  teacher  to  take  a 
certain  amount  of  work  so  that  he  may  "improve."  In  direct 
control  the  teacher  is  required,  in  order  to  hold  his  position  (theoret- 
ically) in  the  school  system,  to  take  a  certain  specified  amount 
of  work  in  a  certain  specified  period.  Such  control  is  very  infre- 
quently found  and  does  not  seem  to  be  generally  accepted  as  a 
desirable  principle  upon  which  to  work.  (See  Portland,  Ore.,  p.  47, 
Austin,  Tex.,  p.  57,  and  Johnstown,  Pa.,  p.  48.)  A  second  type 
of  mandatory  control  is  somewhat  indirect.  It  requires  teachers 
to  attend  certain  meetings  the  other  purposes  of  which  are  legitim- 
ately mandatory,  such  as  the  discussion  of  the  routine  of  the 
system,  and  then  using  the  meetings  in  part  for  educational  pur- 
poses. This,  while  in  a  sense  less  objectionable  than  the  first  type, 
nevertheless  has  unfortunate  features,  that  are  easily  recognized 
by  the  teachers.  (See  Memphis,  Tenn.,  1911-12,  p.  37  quoted 
p.  46.) 

Anything  that  tends  to  minimize  the  interest  or  effort  of  the 
teacher  tends  to  minimize  the  good  that  can  result  from  the  work 
that  he  does,  and  this  good  is  too  important  to  be  prejudiced  in 
this  way. 

A  second  type  of  control  may  be  financial.  It  recognizes 
that  there  are  certain  things  which  the  teacher  does  not  have  to 


110  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

do  but  which  if  they  are  done  by  him  increase  his  value  to  the 
system,  and  are  therefore  worthy  of  some  financial  recognition. 
This  type  of  control  has  been  recognized  to  a  limited  extent,  and 
reveals  itself  in  various  ways.  The  two  means  most  generally 
used  are  (a)  the  salary  schedule,  in  which  attainment  of  this  sort 
from  a  number  of  different  sources  is  recognized  as  a  basis  for 
salary  increases,  and  (b)  the  bonus  which  amounts  practically  to 
a  repayment  to  the  teacher  of  part  or  all  of  the  expenses  incurred 
in  undertaking  the  work.  (See  pp.  47  and  26.) 

A  third  type  of  control  may  be  distinguished,  which  partakes 
somewhat  of  the  latter  type,  but  is  chiefly  a  type  of  stimulative 
control.  This  consists  in  offering  some  sort  of  subsidy  or  scholar- 
ship for  the  taking  of  the  work, — i.  e.  support  at  and  during  the 
time  the  work  is  being  taken  as  differentiated  from  the  bonus 
which  is  a  reward  after  the  work  is  finished, — or  it  may  take  the 
form  of  offering  leave  of  absence  for  the  purpose  of  study  or  travel. 
(See  pp.  26  ff.  and  pp.  54  ff.) 

A  fourth  type  of  control  may  be  termed  "professional",  in 
that  it  involves  the  classification  of  teachers  within  a  system 
according  to  their  professional  attainment,  which  in  this  case  is 
measured  by  the  efforts  of  the  teacher  to  improve  his  professional 
equipment.  It  is  generally  recognized  as  a  higher  and  more  de- 
sirable form  of  control  than  the  others  outlined.  (See  p.  50.) 

In  all  of  these  types  the  control  consists  in  the  kind  of  study 
that  is  made  mandatory,  that  is  recognized  financially,  that  it  is 
attempted  to  stimulate,  or  that  leads  to  professional  recognition. 
While  the  amount  of  work  is  specifically  stated,  as  so  many  credits 
or  so  many  class  hours,  the  standards  by  which  the  worth  of  the 
credits  are  judged  are  both  variable  and  indefinite.  (See  p.  52 
and  p.  54.) 

The  problem  of  mastery  of  subject-matter  is  for  the  most  part 
the  problem  of  the  best  use  of  this  control  by  the  school  system, 
inasmuch  as  the  control  of  the  factors  which  contribute  to  it  rest 
so  largely  in  the  school  system. 

Mandatory  control,  in  order  to  be  legitimate,  requires  two 
things:  (a)  a  definitely  fixed  and  objective  standard  of  efficiency 
or  improvement,  which  teachers  may  be  required  to  attain,  and 
(b)  adequate  means  for  the  measuring  of  all  teachers  so  that  the 
exact  degree  of  attainment  may  be  discovered  for  each  one.  The 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  111 

first  is  only  partially  available  at  this  time,  and  even  then  through 
indirect  means;  the  second  cannot  yet  even  be  approached.  If 
there  are,  therefore,  at  least  for  the  great  majority  of  teachers, 
means  of  achieving  the  desired  ends  that  are  not  mandatory,  as 
there  are  in  this  case,  they  should  certainly  be  utilized  wherever 
possible. 

Financial  control  has  two  aspects,  recognitory  and  stimulative. 
It  is  in  the  power  of  the  school  system  to  recognize  the  increased 
worth  of  teachers  by  means  of  adequate  salary  increases,  and  at 
the  same  time  by  carefully  planning  the  schedule  of  increase  or  the 
elements  upon  which  it  is  based,  to  stimulate  teachers  to  efforts 
to  improvement.  A  basic  requirement  of  the  salary  schedule  is 
that  no  distinction  be  made  between  the  different  divisions  of 
teachers  in  the  school  system.  One  superintendent  writes : 

A  teacher  may  be  very  successful  in  one  grade,  but  a  promotion  to  a  higher 
grade  brings  her  in  contact  with  older  pupils  and  different  subjects,  and  her 
work  may  become  medium  or  poor.  Such  a  change  causes  a  reduction  in 
efficiency  and  so  becomes  a  loss  to  the  school  system.  Some  provision  is 
needed  whereby  a  teacher  can  receive  adequate  reward  for  improvement 
without  a  resort  to  the  experiment  of  transferring  her  to  a  higher  grade. 
(Providence,  R.  I.,  1915-16,  p.  60.) 

E.  S.  Evenden  writes: 

Who  can  say  whether  any  one  of  these  divisions  is  more  necessary  or  im- 
portant than  another,  and,  consequently,  why  should  the  distinction  be  made 
either  in  amount  of  preparation  considered  necessary  or  in  the  salary  paid?1 

Educationally  this  situation  constitutes  at  present  perhaps  the  greatest  single 
obstacle  to  progress.  As  long  as  the  situation  requires  that  a  teacher  riseby  chang- 
ing his  work  instead  oj  by  capitalizing  his  experience  and  improving  his  work, 
little  genuine  progress  toward  professional  efficiency  can  be  realized.  * 

With  the  assurance  that  his  efforts  toward  improvement 
would  be  adequately  recognized,  the  teacher  is  relieved  from  in- 
vidious comparisons,  between  grades,  ranks,  classes,  or  divisions 
of  the  service. 

A  second  basic  requirement  is  a  recognition  of  the  increase  in 
the  value  of  the  teacher  to  the  school  system  because  of  the  in- 
crease in  skills.  Dr.  Evenden  says: 

Evenden,  E.  S.,  Teachers'  Salaries  and  Salary  Schedules,  Washington,  Nat.  Ed.  Assn.  Com- 
mission Series,  No.  6,  1919,  p.  146. 

2Bulletin  No.  14,  The  Professional  Preparation  of  Teachers  for  American  Public  Schools.  The 
Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  New  York,  1920,  p.  137. 


112  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

The  most  acceptable  plan  for  granting  increases  seems  to  be  to  grant  the 
same  increase  for  each  year  of  successful  experience  until  the  maximum  is 
attained  for  that  particular  kind  of  work.  It  would  seem  that  for  an  adequate- 
ly prepared  teacher,  that  is  one  who  has  had  six  or  more  years'  preparation 
above  the  elementary  school,  no  annual  increase  should  be  less  than  $100  or 
given  for  less  than  six  or  eight  years. l 

A  third  basic  requirement  is  the  recognition  of  the  increase 
in  the  value  of  the  teacher  to  the  school  system  because  of  his  in- 
creased mastery  over  subject-matter.  This  is  doubtless  just  as 
real  a  value  to  the  system  as  that  of  the  increased  value  due  to 
experience,  or  increase  in  skills.  It  has  been  less  generally  recog- 
nized, however  and  has  been  put  into  effect  only  partially.  The 
cities,  (a)  which  grant  salary  increases  for  the  accomplishment  of 
certain  amounts  of  work  undertaken  during  service,  or  (6)  which 
make  distinctions  in  the  salary  schedule  between  teachers  holding 
professional  degrees,  or  (c)  which  make  salary  distinctions  for 
differences  in  the  excess  of  professional  work  which  teachers  have 
taken  beyond  the  minimal  requirements  for  appointment  to  a 
teaching  position,  recognize  this  principle. 

On  the  stimulative  side,  in  addition  to  the  stimulation  which 
results  from  a  schedule  based  on  the  principles  outlined  above,  the 
granting  of  a  bonus  for  certain  amounts  of  work  undertaken,  for 
definite  periods  of  time,  or  a  limited  number  of  bonuses  may, 
while  merely  adding  temporarily  to  the  teacher's  salary,  be  a  great 
stimulation  to  effort,  although  it  does  not  recognize  the  increase 
in  value  of  a  teacher  merely  because  of  the  effort.  In  this  con- 
nection Dr.  Evenden  says: 

This  is  merely  helping  the  teacher,  to  the  extent  of  the  amount  given,  to 
pay  the  extra  expenses  caused  by  attending  the  summer  school,  and  makes 
no  allowance  for  the  fact  that  the  teacher  is  a  stronger  teacher.  . 
Better  results  would  doubtless  be  obtained  from  the  teachers  and  better  re- 
turns of  the  investments  for  the  district  if  this  sum,  for  example  $50,  not 
only  should  be  given  for  the  year  the  teacher  attends  summer  school,  but 
should  be  a  permanent  increase  to  the  salary  that  she  is  otherwise  entitled  to.2 

Professional  control,  too,  may  be  either  recognitory  or  stimu- 
lative. It  is  closely  allied  to  financial  control,  and  becomes  in- 
extricably a  part  of  financial  control,  when  professional  attainment 

JEvenden,  E.  S.,  op.  cit.,  p.  142. 
'Evenden,  E.  S.,  ibid.,  p.  144. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  113 

is  included  in  the  salary  schedule.  Professional  control  implies 
the  division  of  teachers  into  classes  in  recognition  of  different 
degrees  of  professional  attainment.  It  is  different  from  financial 
control  in  view  of  the  fact  that  salary  differences  need  not  be  a 
necessary  accompaniment.  H.  T.  Manuel  of  the  Colorado  State 
Normal  School  proposes  four  general  classes  of  teachers,  "for 
illustration  only": 

(1)  The  master  teacher,  a  person  who  has  had  at  least  four  years  of  col- 
lege training  beyond  the  high  school,  and  either  as  a  part  of  his  college  course, 
or  in  addition  to  it,  the  equivalent  of  one  year  of  approved  professional  train- 
ing; and  who  has  had  at  least  three  years  of  successful  teaching  experience 
subsequent  to  the  completion  of  the  educational  requirements. 

(2)  The  registered  teacher,  a  person  who  has  had  at  least  two  years  of 
professional  training  consisting  of  approved  academic  and  professional  courses 
beyond  the  high  school,  and  who  has  had  two  years  of  successful  teaching 
experience  subsequent  to  the  completion  of  his  educational  requirements,  but 
who  has  not  completed  the  requirements  for  a  master's  rating. 

(3)  The  apprentice  teacher,  a  person  who  has  less  than  the  qualifications 
required  for  the  rating  of  a  registered  teacher. 

(4)  The  specialist,  a  master  teacher  who  has  the  additional  training  and 
experience  to  entitle  him  to  classification  as  a  specialist  in  specified  forms  of 
educational  work.1 

Dr.  Evenden,  in  his  discussion  of  "The  Element  of  Flexibility 
in  Salary  Schedules",  says  the  following: 

For  example,  where  it  is  desirable  to  increase  a  teacher's  salary  over  what 
the  regular  schedule  calls  for,  she  may:  (1)  be  changed  to  another  position 
with  a  higher  schedule;  (2)  be  made  demonstration  teacher  for  her  subject  or 
grade;  (3)  be  placed  in  charge  of  a  special  experiment;  (4)  be  made  responsible 
for  some  assistant  supervision  with  younger  teachers;  (5)  be  made  assistant 
principal  of  the  building  in  which  she  works;  (6)  be  made  responsible  for  a 
certain  form  of  community  service;  or  (7)  be  put  in  general  charge  of  some 
extra  school  activity  of  the  children.  Many  such  adjustments  may  be  made 
and  in  most  cases,  they  will  mean  merely  an  addition  to  the  teacher's  title, 
since  if  she  is  the  kind  of  teacher  who  deserves  the  extra  compensation,  she  will 
undoubtedly  be  doing  several  kinds  of  extra  work  for  which  she  might  be 
singled  out  and  rewarded.  The  use,  not  to  excess  of  this  principle  of  flexi- 
bility enables  a  salary  schedule  to  remove  unnecessary  worry  from  the  teachers, 
and  yet  retain  promise  enough  of  reward  to  appeal  to  the  most  ambitious. 
Each  teacher  may  then  strive  to  acquire  special  skill  in  her  work,  and  may 
know  that  hard  conscientious  work  at  all  times  will  undoubtedly  not  go 
unrewarded.2 

Manuel,  H.  T.,  Training  Teachers  in  Service,  School  and  Society,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  336,  December 

1,  1921,  p.  634. 
'Evenden,  E.  S.,  op.  cit.,  p.  145. 


114  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

These  means  of  control  depend  for  their  effectiveness  upon 
the  requirements  or  limitations  they  place  upon  the  work  that 
they  recognize  or  attempt  to  stimulate.  As  has  been  stated  these 
limitations  are  extremely  variable.  At  one  extreme  are  the  limi- 
tations merely  of  the  accessibility  of  various  types  of  work,  while 
at  the  other  extreme  are  the  more  elaborate  schemes  of  granting 
credits  such  as  those  reported  from  Beverly,  Mass.,  and  La  Crosse, 
Wisconsin.  (See  p.  51  and  p.  53.)  In  most  cases  where  specific 
limitation  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  the  granting  of  leaves 
of  absence  or  for  the  granting  of  a  bonus,  the  matter  of  decision  as 
to  whether  or  not  the  work  elected  by  the  teacher  is  professional 
is  left  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  or  the  board  of  education. 

The  criterion  for  the  determination  of  the  recognitory  value 
of  any  of  the  courses  or  studies  in  question  is  the  improvement 
which  they  engender  in  the  teacher's  work  and  which  makes  the 
teacher  a  more  valuable  member  of  the  teaching  body.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  say,  impossible  in  our  present  state  of  knowledge, 
where  the  line  should  be  drawn  between  the  studies  that  would 
result  in  an  improvement  in  teaching,  and  those  that  would  not 
so  result.  Probably  few  things  that  a  teacher  could  do  in  the  way 
of  advanced  study  would  fail  to  have  some  effect  in  making  him  a 
better  teacher.  Any  extension  of  knowledge,  however  small, 
would  doubtless  have  a  positive  influence  upon  the  teacher's  worth. 

The  real  question,  however,  is  not  what  policy  will  lead  to 
some  improvement,  but  what  policy  will  lead  to  a  maximum  of 
improvement.  A  final  solution  based  upon  careful  measurements 
is  obviously  not  possible  here.  All  that  can  be  hoped  for  is  a 
provisional  solution  based  upon  the  best  evidence  available,  and 
guided  by  principles  which  will  be  generally  accepted.  Few 
people  would  question  that  the  problem  of  the  school  system  is  to 
stimulate  the  teachers  to  the  greatest  possible  growth.  At  the 
same  time  the  school  system  must  protect  itself  by  circumscribing 
the  work  that  will  be  recognized  for  advancement  through  salary, 
bonus,  or  professional  position,  to  the  end  that  real  well-rounded 
improvement  results. 

Before  determining  in  just  what  way  it  may  circumscribe  the 
kinds  and  amounts  of  work  or  study  to  be  stimulated  and  recog- 
nized, the  school  system  must  take  account  of  two  factors.  These 
are,  first,  the  purposes  or  sequence  of  purposes,  which  teachers 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  115 

have  or  might  have  in  undertaking  the  work;  and  secondly  certain 
factors  operating  in  the  case  of  the  in-service  work  of  teachers 
which  would  tend  of  themselves  to  limit  the  values  of  what  the 
teacher  might  do. 

It  is  recognized  that  for  various  reasons  some  teachers  will 
not  be  permanent  in  the  service  and  that  others  will  change  their 
work  within  the  service.  Many  of  them  will  remain  in  the  system 
only  a  short  time.  Some  will  move  into  other  types  of  teaching 
positions  within  the  system.  Some  will  become  administrators, 
or  specialists,  or  supervisors.  The  studies  that  are  recognized, 
nevertheless,  must  be  of  such  a  character  that  the  work  will  be 
of  value  to  the  school  system  regardless  whether  the  teacher  re- 
mains permanently.  Of  course  the  longer  a  teacher  remains  the 
greater  will  be  the  returns  which  will  accrue  to  the  system,  because 
such  improvement  is  cumulative,  but  the  first  consideration  is 
that  the  early  study  that  is  outlined  should  have  the  largest  im- 
mediate values.  This  will  insure  a  maximum  of  direct  influence 
upon  teaching  among  those  who  will  soon  leave  the  service,  and 
may  also  serve  to  increase  the  probability  of  holding  in  the  service 
or  of  increasing  the  tenure  of  some  who  might  otherwise  leave. 

For  those  who  remain  as  teachers,  or  who  remain  within  the 
system  even  in  other  capacities,  there  comes  the  increasing  import- 
ance of  the  remote  values,  those  values  which  become  fully  realized 
only  if  the  teacher  does  remain  in  the  system.  They  are  the  founda- 
tion elements  upon  which  the  teachers  may  build  for  the  satisfac- 
tion of  their  ultimate  purposes.  These  purposes  the  school  system 
must  recognize  and  prepare  to  meet. 

It  must  recognize  that  from  the  teaching  staff,  as  school 
systems  are  at  present  organized,  must  come  the  larger  number  of 
those  individuals  who  make  up  master  teachers  and  the  administra- 
tive and  supervisory  officers  of  the  school  system.  While  it  has 
been  stated  as  unsound  to  expect  that  a  teacher,  in  order  to  gain  a 
higher  remuneration  for  his  services,  should  be  obliged  to  become 
a  supervisory  or  administrative  officer,  it  is  clearly  just  as  unsound 
not  to  allow  those  whose  qualifications  make  them  capable  and 
desirous  of  assuming  such  positions,  to  prepare  for  them.  The 
implication  is  that  if,  because  of  custom  or  otherwise,  there  is  any 
salary  differential  between  the  supervisory  positions  and  the  teach- 
ing positions  that  require  equal  preparation  and  comparable 


116  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

ability  that  differential  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  tempt  teachers 
to  become  either  supervisory  or  administrative  officers  unless 
qualified  by  preparation  and  ability  to  do  so. 

In  addition,  because  a  large  part,  if  not  all,  of  the  advanced 
study  that  a  teacher  may  undertake  is  now  felt  to  be  worthy  of 
credit  toward  a  recognized  professional  degree,  and  because  such 
professional  recognition  is  highly  valued  by  teachers,  as  is  evidenced 
by  the  large  number  who  undertake  such  work  for  degrees,  the 
work  that  the  school  system  recognizes  should  be  of  such  a  charac- 
ter that  it  will  count  toward  a  degree.  In  order  to  stimulate  pro- 
fessional recognition,  the  school  system  should  distinctly  encour- 
age courses  of  collegiate  grade,  and  should  recognize  such  courses 
in  terms  of  the  accepted  professional  units,  credits,  semester  hours, 
or  their  equivalents.  Such  a  procedure  would  not  only  simplify 
the  administration  of  recognition,  but  would  add  a  very  desirable 
stimulus. 

The  limiting  factors  connected  with  the  work  that  the  teacher 
might  do  consist  in  the  continuity,  the  sequence,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  study.  These  are  mainly  dependent  upon  the  time 
which  the  teacher  has  available  for  such  study.  The  main  duty 
of  the  teacher  is  the  work  that  he  does  for  and  in  the  class-room  with 
his  pupils.  Anything  else  that  he  does  must  not  prejudice  his 
work  there.  This  must  be  recognized  as  the  great  differentiating 
principle  that  distinguishes  pre-service  and  in-service  study  of  the 
same  character. 

There  must  be  continuity  in  the  work  that  is  recognized.  It 
is  generally  agreed  that  a  policy  which  allows  work  to  be  taken 
irregularly,  and  in  isolated  and  unrelated  units  is  wasteful  and 
ineffective. 

A  true  curriculum  is  more  than  a  mere  aggregation  of  courses,  it  is  an  or- 
ganization dominated  by  a  unitary  purpose.  If  this  principle  is  to  be  worked 
out  effectively,  each  instructor  must  necessarily  be  familiar  with  the  work 
of  the  other  instructors.  .  .  .  The  careful  periodic  adjustment  of  the 
various  parts  of  the  educational  organism  is  just  as  necessary  as  the  careful, 
periodic  adjustment  of  a  watch  or  of  any  other  finely  organized  structure. 
It  makes  for  a  maximum  of  efficiency  and  a  minimum  of  waste.1 

To  be  of  greatest  value  the  study  of  the  teacher  should  be  so 
planned  that  the  growth  is  continuous.  This  is  the  problem  of 

1  Bulletin  No.  14,  op.  tit.,  p.  183. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  117 

sequence  as  well  as  the  problem  of  continuity.  In  addition  the 
work  must  be  so  distributed  that  the  teacher  does  not  take  the 
same  type  of  study  over  a  long  period  so  that  the  interest  which 
he  may  have  in  it  is  allowed  to  diminish.  These  three  factors- 
continuity,  sequence,  and  the  distribution  of  the  study — are  the 
important  factors  in  determining  the  curriculum  for  the  teacher  in 
service.  The  time  that  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  through  in- 
service  courses  to  cover  a  certain  amount  of  ground  is  so  much  greater 
than  if  the  same  ground  is  covered  in  pre-service  courses,  that 
these  factors  become  of  tremendous  importance. 

If  an  analogy  may  be  justly  drawn  between  the  amount  of 
training  and  education  which  a  teacher  needs  in  order  to  be  an 
efficient  practitioner  and  the  amount  of  education  and  training 
that  is  considered  wise  and  necessary  in  other  professions  it  would 
seem  that  before  specialization  is  encouraged  a  broad  grounding 
in  educational  fact  and  theory  should  be  guaranteed.  The  accepted 
minimum  point  for  this  is  the  gaining  of  the  Bachelor's  degree,  or, 
in  terms  of  professional  units  one  hundred  twenty  or  more  semester 
hours  of  collegiate  study. 

In  other  branches  of  teaching  this  amount  of  study  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  recognized  as  necessary  for  the  teacher  entering 
the  profession.  The  generally  accepted  minimal  requirement  for 
a  high  school  teacher,  or  for  the  junior  high  school  teacher,  much 
of  whose  work  was  only  recently  on  the  elementary  school  level, 
is  the  Bachelor's  degree.  It  does  not  seem  that  the  subjects  of 
the  elementary  school  curriculum  are  any  less  easy  to  master, 
that  their  range  is  any  less  wide,  or  that  the  work  that  is  done  is 
any  less  important  that  the  curriculum  or  the  range  or  the  work 
in  these  other  branches  of  education.  There  ought  to  be  at  least 
the  same  attitude  toward  the  groundings  necessary  for  the  element- 
ary school  preparation. 

Strayer  and  Engelhardt  say, 

There  is  no  greater  fallacy  than  that  involved  in  the  supposition  that  those 
who  work  with  young  children  need  little  education.  The  subject-matter 
of  the  primary  grades  of  the  elementary  school  is  extensive  if  one  is  to  com- 
mand it  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the  very  best  service  in  this  part  of  the  school 
system.  .  .  ^  The  special  knowledge  of  children  and  of  the  technique 
of  teaching  demanded  of  a  lower  grade  teacher  is  as  difficult  of  mastery  as 
that  which  is  required  of  those  who  teach  older  boys  and  girls.1 

1  Strayer  and  Engelhardt,  The  Class-room  Teacher,  American  Book  Co.,  1920,  p.  388. 


118  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

Bulletin  No.  14,  previously  cited,  contains  the  following: 

A  ...  suggestion  frequently  offered  as  a  sufficient  reason  for  the 
distinction  in  question  is  that  the  work  of  the  four  higher  grades,  commonly 
known  collectively  as  the  "high  school,"  is  "advanced"  work  and  therefore 
requires  the  "advanced"  preparation  of  a  college  course.  And  it  is  thereby 
implied  that  elementary  instruction  is  "elementary"  work  and  requires  but 
"elementary"  preparation  or  perhaps  only  "ordinary  common  sense." 
Historically  there  is  much  truth  in  this  explanation.  For  a  long  period  high 
school  teaching  could  be  prepared  for  only  in  college,  while  no  college  con- 
cerned itself  seriously  either  with  the  studies  or  with  the  pupils  of  the  ele- 
mentary school.  As  the  normal  schools  gradually  made  good  their  function, 
the  studies  and  pupils  of  the  elementary  school  became  the  center  of  their 
attention.  Partly  for  this  reason  and  partly  because  the  colossal  size  and 
strangeness  of  the  new  problem  led  many  normal  schools  into  obviously  super- 
ficial and  futile  practices,  the  whole  movement  was  ignored  and  often  actively 
misunderstood  by  the  colleges.  . 

The  work  of  the  normal  schools,  extended  and  systematized  by  university 
and  college  departments  of  education,  has  brought  into  being  a  type  of  prepara- 
tion fully  as  indispensable  to  the  elementary  teacher  and  to  society  as  a  col- 
lege course  can  possibly  be  to  a  high  school  instructor.  The  work  of  one  has 
become  as  "advanced"  as  that  of  the  other,  tho  it  deals  with  different  materials. 
Compared  with  the  secondary  teacher,  whose  field  is  narrowly  limited,  the 
competent  lower  grade  instructor  must  possess  a  sure  mastery  in  a  relatively 
wide  range  of  subjects — a  mastery  that  the  present  brief  training  restricts 
almost  to  the  bare  material  to  be  taught.  The  technical  difficulties  of  teaching 
and  of  class  management  appreciably  increase  in  passing  from  the  higher  to 
the  middle  levels  of  public  school  instruction;  the  equipment  of  the  elementary 
teacher  in  skillful  technique  must  therefore  be  correspondingly  greater.  In 
contrast  with  the  strong  natural  sympathy  existing  between  the  well-chosen 
adult  teacher  and  the  mature  or  adolescent  youth,  a  teacher  of  younger  children 
finds  a  competent  knowledge  of  his  pupils  and  a  permanent  interest  in  them  to 
be  a  more  remote  and  more  difficult  acquisition  that  must  be  sustained,  if  at 
all,  by  motives  implying  a  large  social  horizon  and  purpose.  The  lack  of  this; 
due  to  insufficient  education,  is  precisely  the  secret  of  the  mechanical  and 
commonplace  older  "grade"  teacher,  familiar  to  every  observer. 

.  So  far  as  the  work  itself  is  concerned,  therefore,  it  must  be  con- 
tended that  there  is  no  longer  any  teaching  position  in  the  list  for  which  "ad- 
vanced" preparation  may  justly  and  profitable  be  denied  in  favor  of  any  other. * 

From  another  standpoint  at  least  the  equivalent  of  two  years 
of  this  broad  education  beyond  the  present  standard  normal- 
school  training  seems  necessary.  The  materials  from  which  this 
further  education  may  be  drawn  are  in  themselves  so  abundant 
and  so  rich,  and  their  effect  upon  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  so 

Bulletin  No.  14,  op.  cit.,  pp.  133-134. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  119 

important  in  that  they  lift  the  teacher  beyond  the  mere  essentials 
of  his  teaching  required  for  the  satisfaction  of  minimal  school 
standards,  that  for  this  desired  improvement,  as  well  as  for  the 
laying  of  the  groundwork  of  all  that  may  come  later,  their  acquisi- 
tion becomes  even  more  important. 

The  curriculum  that  is  outlined,  should,  in  the  main,  recognize 
the  needs  of  the  teachers,  first,  in  the  extension  of  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  elementary  school  subjects.  The  field  is  rich  in 
possibilities,  is  full  of  material  of  intrinsic  interest,  and  the  results, 
in  immediate  values,  are  great.  It  is  perfectly  possible  to  organize 
courses,  that  are  worthy  of  collegiate  recognition  in  arithmetic,  in 
English,  in  history,  in  geography,  in  civics  and  in  the  industrial 
arts  of  the  elementary  school,  beyond  the  limitations  that  time 
puts  on  the  work  of  the  two  year  normal  school  curriculum.  These 
courses  should  correlate  with  and  parallel  the  work  that  the  teacher 
is  doing  in  the  class-room,  and  as  such  give  that  work  new  impetus 
and  new  meaning.  Because  of  their  large  immediate  values  they 
should  form  the  core  of  the  earlier  efforts  of  the  teachers  in  the 
extension  of  their  study  toward  the  Bachelor's  degree. 

Binding  these  courses  together,  and  making  them  better  under- 
stood, either  as  separate  courses  or  as  a  part  of  the  others  in  the 
form  of  the  newer  type  of  professionalized  subject-matter  courses, 
should  be  the  study  of  the  instructional  technique  and  other 
technical  aspects  of  this  same  subject-matter.  The  returns  from 
this  type  of  study  are  perhaps  not  so  immediate  and  the  values,  in 
terms  of  their  effect  on  the  teacher's  work  in  the  class-room,  are 
more  remote,  but  their  necessity  is  just  as  great. 

In  addition  to  these,  and  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  have 
a  broader  understanding  of  his  place  in  education,  and  the  rela- 
tionship of  his  work  to  the  purposes  of  education,  there  should  be 
courses  in  the  theoretical  aspects  or  principles  upon  which  educa- 
tion rests,  courses  in  the  philosophy  of  education,  educational 
sociology,  educational  values,  the  psychology  of  learning,  and  the 
history  of  education. 

Assuming  that  part  of  this  advanced  study  may  be  undertaken 
through  extension  courses,  or  their  equivalents,  during  the  period 
of  the  year  that  the  schools  are  in  session,  the  time  that  it  would 
require  for  a  teacher  whose  education  has  been  two  years  in  a 
standard  normal  school,  would  of  course  be  variable.  With  con- 


120  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

tinuous  work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  it  would  probably  take  six 
or  seven  years.  Some  teachers  might  be  able  to  do  it  in  a  briefer 
time  at  no  detriment  to  their  school  work.  During  the  year  that 
the  teacher  is  serving  as  a  novice,  the  work  and  discussions  in  con- 
nection with  that  training  should  occupy  his  whole  time.  Starting 
then  in  the  second  year  of  service  it  would  be  possible  to  him  to 
make  progress  toward  a  degree ;  this  degree,  if  guarded  as  has  been 
suggested,  would  guarantee  the  type  of  desired  further  education. 
At  least  sixty  semester  hours  in  addition  to  the  two  years  of  nor- 
mal-school work  would  be  required  for  a  degree.  If  the  teacher 
should  earn  an  average  of  ten  semester  hours  credit  a  year,  the 
degree  could  be  achieved  in  six  years.  The  possible  combinations 
are  many.  With  only  one  course,  carrying  two  hours'  credit  a 
semester,  the  teacher  could  earn  four  credits  during  the  school  year. 
This  is  fewer  than  many  teachers  actually  earn  who  are  working 
for  a  degree  while  in  service.  If  the  teacher  were  to  attend  a 
summer  school  an  additional  six  credits  would  not  be  unreasonable. 
Whatever  the  combinations  are,  and  they  must  fit  the  individual 
needs  and  opportunities  of  the  teachers,  the  fundamental  require- 
ment throughout  is  that  referred  to, — namely,  the  laying  down  of 
definite  recognitory  requirements  so  that  the  teachers  may  know 
within  what  limits  their  work  should  lie. 

The  problem  of  the  teacher  desiring  to  enter  the  system,  and 
already  holding  a  Bachelor's  degree,  introduces  a  complication 
which  must  be  met.  The  logical  answer  is  simply  that  in  so  far 
as  the  work  done  in  earning  that  degree  parallels  the  work  that 
the  school  system  recognized  in  its  schedule  of  professional  ad- 
vancement, just  so  far  the  school  system  may  recognize  the  work 
that  such  teachers  have  done. 

With  the  acquisition  of  the  Bachelor's  degree  the  teacher 
should  not  discontinue  his  advanced  study  nor  should  the  effort 
of  the  school  system  to  stimulate  him  to  further  growth  cease. 
Here  the  school  system  faces  a  two-fold  problem;  on  the  one  hand 
it  must  make  further  study  necessary  in  order  that  the  teacher 
may  grow,  and  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  make  the  recognition  of 
that  further  improvement  worth  while.  As  has  been  stated,  it 
may  be  expected  that  the  master  teachers,  the  supervisors  and  the 
administrative  officers  of  the  system  will  be  recruited  in  the  main 
from  the  teaching  force.  It  is  from  this  group  of  broadly  trained 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  121 

graduate  teachers,  who  have  wide  knowledge,  and  sympathetic 
and  understanding  insight,  and  who  have  grown  continuously 
since  entering  the  work,  that  those  who  fill  these  positions  should 
come. 

These  teachers  should  be  beyond  the  necessity  for  supervision 
for  the  acquisition  of  skills,  and  because  of  that  the  school  system 
should  recognize  them  as  worthy  of  a  confidence  in  their  powers 
which  it  has  not  previously  accorded  to  them.  Up  to  the  time  of 
their  graduation  they  should  have  received  financial  recognition 
of  their  increase  in  skills,  but  by  that  time  they  should  have  reached 
the  maximum.  After  graduation  they  should  be  placed  on  another 
financial  schedule  designed  to  recognize  their  higher  professional 
qualifications. 

This  is  the  strategic  time  for  the  school  system  to  place  teach- 
ers on  indefinite  tenure.  They  have  proved  their  willingness  to 
grow  and  to  become  better  teachers.  Indefinite  tenure  is  a  recog- 
nition of  the  value  of  the  teacher  to  the  system,  of  the  confidence 
that  the  system  has  in  him,  and  it  makes  the  place  of  the  teacher 
in  the  system  secure.  This  is  also  the  strategic  time  for  the  school 
system  to  recognize  that  the  teacher  does  not  need  the  same  sort 
of  supervision  as  does  the  journeyman  teacher,  and  that  the  grad- 
uate teachers  in  general  should  be  relieved  of  supervision  save  that 
which  they  themselves  ask  for;  namely,  help  on  particular  prob- 
lems. These  suggestions  are  not  new.  The  discussion  merely  < 
brings  into  one  unified  plan  the  details  now  found  in  several 
systems. 

From  this  time  on,  the  teacher  should  be  encouraged  to  capi- 
talize his  mastery,  and  to  become  a  teacher  on  a  higher  professional 
level  than  the  journeyman  teacher.  This  can  be  done  by  the 
school  system  through  adequate  recognition  of  the  teacher's  efforts, 
and  through  giving  these  teachers  the  opportunity  to  make  their 
teaching  have  a  wider  significance. 

Recognizing  the  superior  attainment  of  the  graduate  teacher, 
he  should  be  given  a  choice  of  the  various  possibilities  that  lie 
before  him.  In  these  possibilities  there  should  be  professional 
differentiation  but  not  significant  financial  difference.  (1)  There 
is,  first,  the  possibility  that  he  may  become  a  master  teacher  in  the 
system.  In  this  position  he  would  be  professionally  recognized 
as  a  master  teacher  of  children.  Special  opportunities  should  be 


122  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

given  him  to  exercise  his  mastery  in  a  wider  field.  One  of  these 
might  be  the  use  of  his  services  with  the  journeyman  teachers 
somewhat  on  the  plan  of  the  reserve  teacher.  (See  p.  78.) 

(2)  A  second  possibility  is  his  development  into  a  master  training 
teacher  whose  business  will  be  the  oversight  of  the  novice  teachers. 

(3)  A  third  possibility  is  his  development  into  a  subject-matter 
specialist.     In  this  case  he  might  become  an  observation  teacher, 
a  demonstration  teacher  for  the  novice  teachers  in  the  teaching 
centers,  as  well  as  for  the  journeyman  teachers.     (4)     As  a  fourth 
possibility  he  may  become  a  special  teacher — that  is,  a  specialist 
in  the  teaching  of  variant  types  of  children.     (5)     A  fifth  oppor- 
tunity is  for  his  development  into  an   experimental  specialist — 
that  is  a  specialist  for  the  supervision  and  help  of  the  journeyman 
teachers.     (6)     A  sixth  possibility  is  his  development  into  an 
administrative  officer  of  the  school  system — a  school  principal  or 
an  assistant  principal.     These  are  all  wider  fields  than  the  graduate 
teacher  can  reach  without  additional  training.     They  are  dis- 
tinctly advances  of  a  logical  sort  from  the  traditional  status  of 
the  class-room  teacher,  and  the  requirements  of  any  of  the  positions 
necessitates  further  study  and  preparation. 

Once  he  has  made  a  decision  as  to  his  further  development 
the  teacher  should  be  given  a  choice:  (1)  of  taking  a  year's  leave 
of  absence,  either  with  part  or  with  full  pay,  so  that  he  may  go 
to  some  graduate  school  for  the  particular  type  of  further  training 
that  he  needs,  or  (2)  of  continuing  his  work  in  the  school  system 
and  his  study  along  with  it.  In  the  former  case  the  necessary 
preparation  would  come  in  more  compact  form  and  its  benefits 
would  be  more  quickly  available  to  the  system.  In  the  latter 
case  the  teacher  would  not  need  to  absent  himself  from  his  work, 
but  the  time  of  preparation  for  the  new  position  would  be  longer. 

With  the  attainment  of  this  step  in  his  development  the  teach- 
er should  be  placed  on  the  schedule  for  the  master  teachers  and 
further  recognized  by  a  significant  title.  Although  the  necessary 
stimulation  for  such  a  teacher  would  probably  come  from  his  work, 
there  is  still  need  for  him  to  continue  to  study  in  order  that  he  may 
keep  up  with  the  growing  knowledge  of  his  speciality  and  also 
that  his  teaching  may  have  that  superadded  vitality  and  meaning 
which  simultaneous  growth  alone  can  give.  There  seems  to  be  no 
good  reason  why  the  school  system  should  not  make  achievement 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  123 

so  desirable  that  there  would  result  a  number  of  places  in  the 
system  for  persons  with  the  highest  type  of  professional  recognition, 
the  doctorate. 

THE  PROBLEM  OF  THE  INCREASE  IN  THE  IDEALISM  OF 

TEACHERS 

The  motive  or  "drive"  which  carries  teaching  to  a  successful 
conclusion  has  both  emotional  and  intellectual  qualities.  It 
serves  to  make  the  teaching  process  full  of  meaning  and  to  point 
the  work  which  the  teacher  does.  This  important  characteristic 
of  the  make-up  of  a  teacher  has  been  variously  styled,  no  one  term 
completely  conveying  the  whole  meaning  of  the  concept.  Here 
it  has  been  called  "power"  or  idealism.  Others  have  referred  to 
it  under  the  terms  "ethical  attitude,"  "attitude,"  "inspiration," 
and  "changes  in  purposes."  A  formulation  in  objective  terms 
has  not  been  satisfactorily  accomplished  at  this  time.  Neverthe- 
less, it  is  recognized  as  being  both  a  very  real  thing,  or  a  number 
of  things,  and  an  element  the  possession  of  which  makes  for  better 
teaching.  Regardless  of  its  non-objectivity,  even  of  the  sort 
which  has  been  discussed  under  the  headings  of  skills  and  know- 
ledge, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  idealism,  to  give  it  a  single  term, 
plays  a  very  large  part  in  the  success  of  the  teaching  process. 

Dealing  as  he  must  with  individuals  on  a  somewhat  lower  level 
than  himself  with  respect  to  what  is  being  consciously  taught,  the 
teacher  who  lacks  the  stimulus  that  comes  from  a  personal  recog- 
nition of  the  worth  of  his  services  tends  to  look  upon  his  work  as 
perfunctory  and  routine — an  attitude  that  inevitably  reduces  the 
values,  both  immediate  and  ultimate,  of  what  he  does.  The  in- 
tegrating forces  that  fuse  into  a  consistent  unity  his  skills  in  teach- 
ing his  mastery  of  knowledge,  and  all  of  the  varied  ends  of  educa- 
tion are  his  far-seeing  ideals.  These  serve  to  give  him  new  points 
of  view  or  new  perspectives.  These  in  turn  make  his  work  more 
meaningful  to  himself  as  well  as  to  those  whom  he  teaches.  They 
aid  in  giving  him  a  wider  sympathy  with  the  efforts  of  his  pupils, 
and  a  truer  measure  of  their  progress.  They  tend  to  create  a  more 
wholesome  attitude  on  his  part  both  toward  his  pupils  and  toward 
the  diverse  elements  in  the  work  that  he  does.  A  clearer  under- 
standing of  difficulties  which  have  surrounded  the  development  of 
our  educational  ideals,  a  broader  and  brighter  vision  with  regard 


124  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

to  these  ideals,  a  clearer  translation  of  his  daily  tasks  into  these 
ideals,  and  a  finer  appreciation  of  the  responsibilities  which  are 
involved  in  teaching  all  tend  to  release  new  energy.  To  increase 
this  energy  is  clearly  a  form  of  real  and  vital  improvement.  In 
the  final  analysis  the  possession  of  these  ideals,  both  in  relation  to 
past  experience,  to  present  necessities,  and  to  ultimate  educational 
ends  makes  the  profession  of  teaching  more  desirable,  more  satis- 
fying, and  infinitely  more  worthwhile. 

Teachers  doubtless  gain  much  from  *  'inspirational"  lecturers. 
There  are  among  educators  those  who  can  transmit  their  enthus- 
iasm and  ideals  to  others  and  who  can  in  well  chosen  words  bring 
teachers  to  see  their  work  in  new  lights  and  in  new  perspectives. 
The  good  that  such  educators  do  on  the  whole  is  unquestionably 
of  large  value. 

On  the  intellectual  side  there  are  many  ways  in  which  teachers 
may  be  led  to  a  higher  idealism.  One  of  these  is  through  the  read- 
ing of  good  books.  In  addition  to  any  informational  improvement 
which  may  result  there  may  come  a  new  reorganization  of  the 
teacher's  purposes,  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  teacher's  place 
in  education,  or  a  fresh  stimulation  toward  the  realization  of  better 
ends.  A  second  way  is  similar  to  this — really  an  extension  of  it. 
It  consists  in  the  enlargement  of  the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the 
subject-matter  that  he  teaches.  This  has  certain  cultural  aspects 
as  well  as  certain  professional  aspects.  If  it  gives  a  wider  appre- 
ciation and  respect  for  the  materials  of  the  elementary  school  curri- 
culum, if  it  shows  the  way  toward  utilizing  better  the  energy  of 
pupils,  and  if  it,  too,  stimulates  the  teacher  toward  ever  better 
ends,  it  contributes  much  toward  the  improvement  of  the  teacher. 

A  third  way  is  through  a  more  intelligent  and  thoughtful 
improvement  in  the  philosophy  of  the  teacher.  This  may  come 
in  many  ways,  through  contacts  with  pupils,  and  colleagues, 
through  wide  and  understanding  reading,  through  classes  conducted 
by  students  of  educational  theory,  and  through  the  guidance  of 
master  teachers.  Whatever  may  be  the  means,  the  ends  are  all 
one —  namely  a  clearer  vision  of  the  varied  and  especially  the  more 
comprehensive  aims  of  education;  a  better  understanding  of  the 
capacities,  needs,  and  possibilities  of  pupils;  a  greater  appreciation 
of  the  social  consequences  of  the  teacher's  work;  and  ever  better, 
ever  higher,  and  ever  more  valid  ideals  of  democratic  education. 


Fundamentals  of  Improvement  125 

The  real  work  of  the  master  teacher  of  children,  which  is  described 
in  a  later  section  consists  in  helping  those  teachers  who  need  it, 
to  translate  into  terms  of  practice  in  the  school-room,  in  the  school, 
and  in  the  community,  those  educational  ideals,  attitudes,  or  pur- 
poses, that  are  known  only  in  terms  of  theory,  or  philosophy,  or 
sociology,  and  to  which  the  quality  of  the  educational  achieve- 
ments of  the  future  will  be  due. 


CHAPTER  IV 

A  SUGGESTED  SCHEME  OF  IMPROVEMENT 
FOR  A  CITY 

I.     THE  NOVICE 

This  is  a  teacher  who  has  had  no  experience  in  teaching.  He 
has  had  at  least  two  years  of  standard  pre-service  education,  and 
may  have  had  more. 

The  conditions  of  improvement  with  this  teacher  center  about 
the  character  and  activities  of  a  period  of  supervised  teaching  in  a 
segregated  center  for  novices.  The  teaching-center  consists  of 
one  of  the  regular  schools  of  the  city,  the  characteristics  of  which 
are  the  same  as  in  any  of  the  other  schools.  The  school  should 
be  under  the  administration  of  a  principal  sympathetic  with  the 
needs  and  problems  of  beginning  teachers,  and  should  have  in 
addition  a  staff  of  expert  training  teachers.  This  staff  should  be 
large  enough  to  permit  each  novice  to  have  personal  contact  with 
a  master  training  teacher  for  a  portion  of  each  day.  If  the  school 
day  is  one  of  five  hours  a  ratio  of  one  training  teacher  to  five 
novices  would  allow  each  novice  to  have  the  personal  help  of  a 
training  teacher  for  an  hour  each  day. 

The  regular  activities  of  the  school  should  be  identical  with 
those  which  prevail  in  the  system.  Each  novice  should  have 
charge  of  his  own  class-room  and  be  primarily  responsible  for  the 
instruction,  the  discipline,  and  the  activities  which  occur  in  it. 
There  should  be  graded  responsibility,  under  the  direction  and 
oversight  of  the  training  teacher,  so  that  the  novice  can  be  gradu- 
ally inducted  into  the  duties  which  he  must  assume  as  a  regular 
teacher  in  the  school  system. 

The  special  activities  of  the  teaching-center  may  well  consist 
of  discussions  on  the  part  of  the  novices,  led  and  directed  by  the 
master  training  teachers,  with  a  view  to  solving  some  of  the  prob- 
lems which  they  find  in  their  work.  It  would  also  be  well  to  hold 
group  classes  for  the  purpose  of  refreshing  and  enlarging  the  know- 
ledge which  the  novices  received  in  their  normal-school  training. 


A  Plan  of  Improvement  127 

This  should  bear  directly  on  the  work  of  the  class-rooms.  In 
addition  there  should  be  definite  and  planned  observation  by  the 
novices  of  the  master  teaching  in  the  school  system.  The  charac- 
ter of  this  observation  has  been  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter. 
The  additional  problem  is  that  of  so  administering  the  observation 
that  the  novices  may  receive  the  greatest  benefit  from  the  work. 

The  salary  of  the  novice  should  be  the  minimum  salary  paid 
in  the  system.  The  tenure  should  be  on  a  yearly  basis,  and  a 
second  appointment  should  depend  on  the  combined  judgments  of 
the  master  training  teachers  in  the  teaching-centers.  A  year  of 
this  supervised  teaching  should  fit  the  novice  for  independent 
work  in  the  city  system,  away  from  the  teaching-center,  but  for 
novices  who  have  great  difficulty  in  becoming  adjusted,  a  second 
apprentice  year  might  be  needed.  Novices  who  cannot  become 
adjusted  after  a  trial  of  two  years  should  be  advised  to  give  up 
teaching  as  a  profession.  No  novice  should  be  allowed  to  do 
substitute  teaching. 

On  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  prescribed  period  in 
the  teaching-center  the  novice  should  be  advanced  to  the  next 
grade  in  the  classification. 

II.     THE  JOURNEYMAN  TEACHER 

This  teacher  has  completed  the  work  of  the  teaching-center, 
and  has  been  appointed  as  a  regular  teacher  in  the  school  system. 
He  has  had  no  preparation  of  collegiate  grade  beyond  that  with 
which  he  entered  the  system. 

The  conditions  of  improvement  with  this  teacher  center  about 
two  phases,  (a)  that  of  improvement  in  skills,  and  (b)  that  of 
improvement  in  knowledge  or  mastery  of  subject-matter.  The 
improvement  in  skills  depends  upon  the  discovery  and  correction 
of  those  difficulties  which  are  evidenced  in  the  management  of 
his  class-room,  and  in  the  deficiencies  that  may  be  discovered  in 
his  teaching  through  the  measurement  of  the  achievement  of  his 
pupils.  There  should  be  a  staff  of  supervisors,  expert  in  testing 
the  results  of  teaching  and  in  interpreting  the  results  as  a  measure 
of  a  teacher's  ability.  This  staff  should  measure  periodically  the 
work  of  the  journeyman  teachers,  by  means  of  the  best  tests 
and  measurements  available.  This  implies  the  use  of  tests  that 
are  standardized,  and  the  furnishing  of  sufficient  clerical  help  to 


128  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

score  and  tabulate  the  results.  In  the  light  of  the  results  thus 
found  the  supervisors  should  interpret  the  quality  of  the  work  of 
the  teacher  and  should  devise  ways  and  means  to  help  those  teach- 
ers in  need  of  aid. 

The  activities  of  the  journeyman  teachers  should  consist  of 
personal  and  group  discussions  with  the  supervisors,  who  should 
analyze  the  work  of  the  teachers  in  the  light  of  the  measurements, 
and  suggest  to  the  teachers  ways  of  improvement.  In  difficult 
cases,  with  both  the  teacher  and  the  supervisor  ignorant  as  to 
good  ways  to  correct  difficulties,  controlled  experimentation  should 
be  used  in  an  endeavor  to  solve  the  problem. 

The  improvement  in  the  mastery  of  subject-matter  should 
supplement  the  improvement  of  the  teacher  in  skills,  and  wherever 
possible  should  parallel  it.  The  effectiveness  of  the  work  hinges 
upon  the  encouragement  which  is  given  for  the  study  that  is 
desired.  A  new  professional  level,  above  that  of  the  journeyman 
teacher  must  be  provided  for  the  teacher  to  work  toward,  and 
every  possible  worthy  inducement  ought  to  be  given  to  the 
teacher  to  reach  it. 

A  course  of  study  should  be  outlined,  as  prerequisite  to  this 
new  professional  level,  whose  content  should  be  in  accordance 
with  the  suggestions  in  a  previous  chapter.  (See  pp.  119  ff.)  Cer- 
tain limitations  should  be  imposed  as  to  the  amount  of  work 
which  a  teacher  may  carry  at  any  one  time,  in  order  to  protect 
the  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  class-room.  With  study  of  the 
character  here  proposed  a  teacher  should  be  able  successfully  to 
carry  no  more  than  four,  or  in  exceptional  cases,  six  semester  hours 
of  work  at  any  one  time.  Certain  advanced  study  must  be  pro- 
vided for  during  the  school  year.  This  may  take  the  form  of  ex- 
tramural extension  courses  of  collegiate  grade  given  by  collegiate 
instructors,  or  of  equivalent  courses  given  at  a  local  institution 
if  there  is  one.  The  work  that  is  offered  at  this  time  should  cor- 
relate with  and  wherever  possible  parallel  the  work  which  the  teach- 
ers do  in  their  class-rooms.  This  means  a  close  relationship  be- 
tween the  agencies  that  give  the  work  and  the  school  authorities 
who  sponsor  it.  The  class-room  teaching  should  be  considered 
as  the  laboratory  work  of  the  courses  that  are  given.  These  courses 
may  be  of  Type  1,  Subject-Matter  Extension  of  the  Elementary 
School  Subjects,  (see  p.  107)  or  Type  2,  The  Technical  Aspects  of 


A  Plan  of  Improvement  129 

Subject-Matter  and  Subject-Matter  Presentation  and  Instruction. 
(See  p.  107.)  The  plan  of  St.  Louis,  (see  p.  15),  that  of  announc- 
ing courses  to  be  given  over  a  period  of  years,  is  valuable  here,  as 
it  would  allow  teachers  to  plan  systematically  practically  the  whole 
of  their  work  over  a  considerable  period. 

In  addition  to  this  the  teachers  should  be  encouraged  to  take 
advanced  studies  in  summer  sessions  at  other  institutions.  This 
work  may  be  of  Type  2,  or  of  Type  3,  The  Theory  of  Subject- 
Matter  and  the  Theory  of  Education  in  General.  (See  p.  107.) 
It  would  be  very  difficult  for  teachers  to  get  equivalent  value  in 
summer  sessions  in  courses  of  Type  1.,  because  of  the  necessity  and 
desirability  of  the  close  relation  of  such  courses  to  the  actual  work 
of  each  teacher  in  his  class-room.  The  other  two  types  might  also 
be  more  valuable  if  given  in  the  same  connection,  but  the  differ- 
ences in  value  are  probably  not  so  great.  Inducements  in  the 
form  of  scholarships  or  bonuses  that  will  help  to  pay  or  reimburse 
the  teacher  for  the  traveling  expenses,  tuition,  or  part  of  the  living 
expenses  incurred  through  attendance  upon  summer  sessions, 
may  well  be  offered.  The  number  of  these  scholarships  allowed 
to  any  one  teacher  should  probably  be  limited  to  not  more  than 
four,  or  for  an  equivalent  of  no  more  than  half  of  the  work  required. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that,  although  it  is  desirable  to  encourage 
summer  session  study,  it  is  not  desirable  to  encourage  it  to  the  point 
of  inducing  the  teacher  to  take  all  of  his  advanced  work  in  that 
form. 

Study  of  the  Types  4  and  5  should  not  be  encouraged  at 
this  time  and  should  not  be  allowed  toward  this  degree,  unless,  as 
may  be  found  desirable,  a  certain  amount  of  elective  study  is  in- 
cluded in  the  curriculum.  Specialization,  too,  unless  it  is  also 
allowed  as  above,  should  be  discouraged  until  the  teacher  has 
achieved  the  broad  grounding  guaranteed  by  his  Bachelor's  degree. 

The  tenure  of  the  journeyman  teacher  should  be  on  a  yearly 
basis,  and  the  salary  should  be  increased  year  by  year  in  recognition 
of  his  increase  in  skills.  A  maximum  might  well  be  reached  in 
six  or  seven  years.  There  should  be,  during  that  period,  no  in- 
crease in  salary  because  of  increase  in  mastery  of  subject-matter 
unless  the  teacher  receives  a  Bachelor's  degree  before  he  has 
reached  the  maximum  of  the  schedule  for  skills.  Recognition  of 
increase  in  mastery  of  subject-matter  should  be  delayed  until  after 


130  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

the  granting  of  the  degree.  The  reason  for  this  is  first,  that  the 
completion  of  all  the  work  included  in  the  requirements  for  the 
degree  may  be  encouraged,  and  secondly,  that  any  tendency  to 
make  the  recognition  merely  automatic,  or  confused  with  the 
salary  increases  for  improvement  in  skills,  may  be  prevented. 

III.     THE  GRADUATE  TEACHER 

This  teacher  has  two  primary  qualifications.  He  has,  first, 
reached  the  maximum  of  the  journeyman  salary  scale  for  increase 
in  improvement  in  skills,  and  he  has,  secondly,  been  granted  a 
Bachelor's  degree  for  advanced  study  recognized  for  professional 
advancement  by  his  school  system. 

He  should  be  encouraged  to  continue  his  growth.  This  in- 
volves, on  his  part,  a  careful  analysis  of  the  development  that  is 
possible  for  him  to  make.  The  school  system  should  define  these 
possibilities  and  should  also  place  them  on  a  higher  professional 
level  toward  which  he  may  progress.  After  the  analysis  of  the 
further  possibilities  the  graduate  teacher  should  be  given  an  oppor- 
tunity to  choose  the  new  type  of  work  for  which  he  wishes  to  pre- 
pare himself,  and,  after  having  declared  his  choice,  he  should  be 
advised  as  to  the  curriculum  of  studies  which  will  prepare  him  for 
it.  Should  he  make  no  decision,  or  wish  to  delay  doing  so,  the 
school  system  should  acquiesce.  A  further  step  should  be  the 
offer  by  the  school  system  of  a  choice  of  leave  of  absence,  with 
part  pay  at  least,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  further  preparation, 
if  the  teacher  has  chosen  his  further  type  of  work,  or  of  continuing 
his  study  for  it  without  taking  advantage  of  the  leave,  if  he  so 
wishes. 

The  tenure  of  the  graduate  teacher  should  be  made  indefinite, 
as  proposed  in  an  earlier  chapter,  and  at  the  same  time  he  should 
be  relieved  of  the  supervision  experienced  as  a  journeyman  teacher, 
although  he  should  have  access  to  it  when  desired  by  him.  The 
salary  of  the  graduate  teacher  should  be  that  of  the  maximum  of 
the  journeyman  teacher,  plus  a  substantial  addition  in  recognition 
of  the  superior  professional  attainment. 

IV.     THE  MASTER  TEACHER 

These  are  the  expert  teachers  of  the  school  system,  whose  pro- 
fessional training  and  teaching  experience  has  made  them  special- 


A  Plan  of  Improvement  131 

ists  and  whose  work  should  have  a  wider  significance  and  a  broader 
meaning  than  that  of  the  graduate  teachers.  In  addition  to  being 
graduate  teachers — that  is  having  increased  to  a  satisfactory 
maximum  their  improvement  in  teaching  skills  and  in  addition 
having  received  a  Bachelor's  degree — they  have  made  more 
advanced  study  in  the  specialities  of  their  choice. 

The  professional  level  of  these  teachers  should  be  above  that 
of  the  graduate  teachers,  and  in  recognition  of  their  superior  pro- 
fessional attainment  they  should  receive  a  substantial  increase  in 
salary  over  that  of  the  graudate  teachers. 

The  study  that  is  outlined  for  each  teacher,  in  order  that  he 
may  become  a  master  teacher,  should  be  specifically  directed  to 
prepare  him  for  the  particular  specialty  he  has  chosen.  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  types  of  master  teachers  and  some  of  the  pro- 
fessional needs  for  their  development. 

1.     THE  MASTER  TEACHER  OF  CHILDREN 

This  is  a  teacher  who  has  unusual  ability  in  the  teaching  of 
children  and  in  the  solving  of  the  problems  that  arise  in  the  process. 
In  addition  to  being  able  to  teach  children  well  he  should  be  able 
to  tell  others  or  show  others  how  he  does  it.  He  should  be  able  to 
advise  with  the  graduate  and  journeyman  teachers,  should  be  given 
the  opportunity  to  visit  schools  and  teachers  where  he  may  be  of 
service,  and  he  should  have  no  administrative  or  rating  authority. 
A  special  ability  in  the  collection  of  materials  which  teachers  might 
use,  in  devising  schemes  for  making  the  materials  of  the  elementary 
school  instruction  more  easily  understood  by  children,  or  more 
efficiently  presented  to  them,  or  in  organizing  materials  for  the 
use  of  teachers,  might  be  capitalized  in  this  way. 

The  real  work  of  this  master  teacher  is  to  assume  in  the  school 
system  the  work  of  inspiring  the  journeyman  and  graduate  teachers 
to  higher  ways  of  teaching,  of  helping  them  to  translate  into  their 
practice  the  theories  and  philosophy  which  they  hold,  and  of  en- 
couraging them  in  their  efforts  to  exceed  the  minimal  standards  of 
the  system. 

The  special  training  of  such  a  teacher  should  consist  of  a 
special  study  of  the  problems  of  elementary  school  instruction 
and  supervision,  and  of  the  sympathetic  and  scientific  approach 
to  the  problems  of  teachers. 


132  Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 

2.  THE  MASTER  TRAINING  TEACHER 

This  teacher  should  have  great  tact  in  dealing  with  young 
teachers,  a  large  amount  of  sympathy  and  understanding  of  their 
difficulties,  and  an  ability  to  help  them  constructively  in  solving 
the  problems  that  confront  them.  Such  a  teacher  should  know 
the  pitfalls  that  beset  the  path  of  the  novice,  and  have  an  ability 
to  analyze  their  difficulties. 

The  training  of  this  teacher  should  consist  in  special  study  of 
the  technical  phases  of  supervision  and  instruction,  the  diagnosis 
of  the  needs  of  the  novice  and  the  problems  of  criticism  and  con- 
structive help. 

3.  THE  SUBJECT-MATTER  SPECIALIST 

This  is  a  class-room  teacher,  especially  expert  in  the  teaching 
of  some  phase  of  subject-matter,  who  does  so  in  connection  with 
a  class  of  his  own,  or  else  visits  other  teachers  in  a  specialty  which 
all  teachers  may  not  be  expected  to  be  able  to  teach,  for  example, 
music,  art,  industrial  arts,  and  the  like.  A  teacher  may  capital- 
ize this  knowledge  or  special  ability  either  through  acting  as  an 
observation  or  demonstration  teacher  for  the  novices,  for  students- 
in-training,  or  for  journeyman  teachers,  or  else  as  a  special  sub- 
ject-matter supervisor  or  teacher. 

The  further  training  of  the  graduate  teacher  for  such  a  posi- 
tion should  be  in  the  increase  in  his  knowledge  of  his  specialty, 
and  in  the  technical  phases  of  its  presentation. 

4.  THE  SPECIAL  TEACHER 

This  is  a  teacher  with  special  ability  in  the  teaching  of  variant 
types  of  children.  He  must  have  a  great  liking  for  and  sympathy 
with  the  type  of  child  which  he  aspires  to  teach,  in  addition  to 
special  training  for  his  position. 

This  training  should  consist  in  a  specific  knowledge  of  these 
variant  types,  and  the  needs  of  such  children,  as  well  as  the  psychol- 
ogy which  has  developed  concerning  them.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  variants  may  be  children  who  move  more  slowly  than 
the  average,  or  more  quickly,  or  children,  with  physical  defects, 
such  as  the  blind  and  the  deaf,  or  children  who  have  special  diffi- 
culties with  special  subjects.  All  of  these  should  be  cared  for  in  the 


A  Plan  of  Improvement  133 

school  system,  and  each  of  them  requires  a  teacher  with  a  different 
kind  of  training. 

5.  THE  EXPERIMENTAL  SPECIALIST 

This  specialist  and  his  duties  have  been  elaborated  in  an  earlier 
section.  Such  teachers  need  training  in  the  use  and  interpretation 
of  tests  and  measurements,  in  the  psychologies  of  the  subjects  of 
the  elementary  school  curriculum,  as  well,  if  teacher  is  a  special- 
ist in  one  subject,  as  a  wide  knowledge  of  that  subject-matter. 
A  knowledge  of  the  difficulties  and  dangers  in  the  work  of  testing 
is  as  necessary  as  a  knowledge  and  a  facility  in  the  technique  of 
giving  it.  Such  a  teacher  should  not  have  administrative  duties. 

6.  THE  ADMINISTRATIVE  OFFICER 

The  duties  of  this  teacher  are  both  administrative  and  super- 
visory. He  must  be  able  to  administer  his  building,  anticipate 
the  difficulties  of  his  teachers,  make  the  routine  as  unobtrusive  as 
possible,  and  at  the  same  time,  by  wise  and  sympathetic  counsel 
with  his  teachers  help  them  to  improve  constantly  in  their  work. 
His  position  is  very  important,  and  his  training  should  be  such  as 
to  develop  these  qualities  to  a  maximum. 

The  diagram  which  follows  is  an  attempt  to  chart  the  course 
of  a  teacher's  improvement  in  the  school  system.  The  terminology 
is  merely  suggestive,  and  the  fact  is  appreciated  that  it  is  not  en- 
tirely satisfactory.  The  chief  reason  for  not  using  some  other 
terms  suggested  both  by  analogy  with  other  professions  and  by 
interested  individuals,  is  that  in  most  cases  the  terms,  such  as 
"apprentice,"  "cadet,"  and  "supervisor,"  have  definite  meanings 
other  than  those  that  might  apply  to  them  here,  and  which  make 
them  undesirable  for  that  reason.  In  the  diagram  below  there 
may  be  many  combinations  possible.  The  attempt  has  been  to 
keep  as  closely  as  possible  to  the  principles  that  have  been  laid 
down  in  this  study,  to  separate  as  far  as  possible  the  professional 
and  financial  aspects  involved  in  teacher  improvement,  to  separate 
the  incongruous  elements  now  found  in  much  of  "supervision," 
and  to  equate  equivalent  training  and  equivalent  ability. 


134 


Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 


Time  Scale  of 

1    year Skills. .  .  .THE  NOVICE 

t 
I 

5-8 years J,   . .  .THE  JOURNEYMAN 

t  t 

I  I 

1-4 years   THE  GRADUATE. 


Professional 
..Scale 


I 

THE  MASTER  TEACHERS 

4                           J 

I 

Master 
Teacher 

4             4 

Training          Subject 
Teacher         Specialist 

4 

Special 
Teacher 

4 

Super- 
visor 

4 

Adminis- 
trator 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CITY  REPORTS  CITED  IN 

THE  TEXT 


Allentown,  Pa., 
Altoona,  Pa., 


Auburn,  N.  Y., 
Augusta,  Ga., 


Austin,  Tex., 
Bethlehem,  Pa., 

Beverly,  Mass., 


Boston,  Mass., 

Brockton,  Mass., 
Brookline,  Mass., 

Cambridge,  Mass., 


Canton,  Ohio, 


1917-18 

1917-18 
1918-19 
1919-20 


Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,        1916 


1918-19 
1913 


1907 
1915-16 
1918-20 
1917 

1918-19 
1917 

1919 
1920 

1916 

1920 

(1)  1911-12 

(2)  1911-12 


Cedar  Rapids,  la.,  1913-14 

Central  Falls,  R.  I.,  1921 


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Supt.  S.  H.  Layton,  Annual  Report. 
Same. 
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March,  1916.  Extracts  from  Report 

of  Supt.  C.  B.  Boyer. 
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for   Teachers,    in   Report   of  Public 

Schools   of  Augusta   and   Richmond 

County. 

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Supt.  J.  N.  Muir,  Biennial  Report. 
Supt.   S.   H.   Chace,   Annual   Report  of 

Superintendent  in  Report  of  School 

Committee. 
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Committee. 

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Supt.  O.  C.  Gallagher,  in  Annual  Report 

of  School  Committee  in  Town  Report. 
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School  Committee  and  Superintendent 

of  Schools. 
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Public  Schools. 

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Report. 


136 


Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 


Chester,  Pa., 


Chicago,  111., 


Cincinnati,  O., 


Cleveland,  O., 


Columbia,  S.  C., 
Columbus,  Ga., 
Cranston,  R.  I. 

Dallas,  Tex., 
Dayton,  O., 
Denver,  Colo., 


Detroit,  Mich., 
Duluth,  Minn., 


1910-11 
1914-15 
1915 

(1)  1914 

(2)  1914 
1916 
1917 

(1)  1914-15 

(2)  1914-15 
1915-16 

1913-14 

1916 

1914 

1915 
1913-14 
(1)  1918-19 

(2)    1918-19 

1913-14 

1920 

1912 

1918 


East  Providence,  R.  I.,     1915 
Elmira,  N.  Y.,  1912-13 

1915-16 


Supt.  Thos.  S.  Cole,  in  Manual  of  Public 
Schools  of  the  School  District  of  Ches- 
ter, Pa. 

Supt.  J.  L.  Eisenburg,  in  Manual  of 
Public  Schools  of  the  School  District 
of  Chester,  Pa. 

Principal  Owen,  Normal  Training  School, 
in  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of 
Education. 

Supt.  R.  J.  Condon,  85th  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Dean  W.  P.  Burris,  85th  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Dean  W.  P.  Burris,  87th  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Supt.  R.  J.  Condon,  87th  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Supt.  J.  M.  H.  Frederick,  79th  Annual 
Report  of  Superintendent. 

Asst.  Supt.  E.  A.  Hotchkiss,  in  79th  Annual 
Report  of  Superintendent. 

Supt.  J.  M.  H.  Frederick,  80th  Annual 
Report. 

Supt.  E.  S.  Dreher,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  R.  B.  Danniel,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  W.  C.  Hobbs,  in  Annual  Report 
School  Committee. 

Supt.  J.  F.  Kimball,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  E.  J.  Brown,  Annual  Report. 

Emma  B.  Brown,  Principal  Columbian 
School  in  IQth  Annual  Report  of 
Superintendent . 

Supt.  C.  S.  Cole,  in  IQth  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Supt.  C.  E.  Chadsey,  Annual  Report. 

Annual  Report  of  Board  of  Education. 

Supt.  R.  C.  Denfeld,  Annual  Report. 
(Typewritten.) 

Ethel  I.  Saulsbury,  Supervisor  of  Kinder- 
garten and  Primary  Department  in 
Reports  of  Supervisors  in  Annua 
Report  of  Board  of  Education. 

Supt.  J.  R.  D.  Oldham,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  A.  J.  Jacoby,  Annual  Report. 

Same. 


Bibliography 


137 


Everett,  Mass., 
Fall  River,  Mass., 


Fargo,  N.  D., 
Fitchburg,  Mass., 
Harrisburg,  Pa., 

Haverhill,  Mass., 
Houston,  Tex., 

Indianapolis,  Ind., 
Jamestown,  N.  Y., 


Jersey  City,  N.  J., 

Johnstown,  Pa., 
Kansas  City,  Mo., 


Kenosha,  Wis., 

Kingston,  N.  Y., 
La  Crosse,  Wis., 

Lakewood,  O., 
Lewiston,  Me., 
Lynn,  Mass., 

Manchester,  N.  H., 
Memphis,  Tenn., 

Moline,  111., 

Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y., 

Muskogee,  Okla., 
New  Bedford,  Mass., 


1918          Supt.  F.  Whitney,  in  Annual  Report  of 
School  Committee. 

1917  Margaret   A.   Lynch   and   Ruth   Negus, 

Primary    Supervisors,     in    Annual 
Report  of  Superintendent. 

1918  Supt.  H.  L.  Belisle,  Annual  School  Report. 
1917-19     Supt.  A.  Deemer,  Biennial  Report. 

1914  Supt.  J.  Chalmers,  in  Annual  School  Report. 
1916          Supt.  F.  E.  Downes,  Annual  Report. 

1919  Same. 

1920  Same. 

1919  Supt.  C.  H.  Dempsey,  Annual  Report. 
1915-16     Supt.  P.  W.  Horn,  Annual  Report. 
1916-17     Same. 

1916          Supt.  J.  G.  Collicott,  Annual  Report. 
1909-12     Supt.    R.    R.    Rogers,    Triennial   Report 

Public  Schools. 
1915-18     Same. 
1913-14     Supt.  H.  Snyder,  46^  Annual  Report  of 

Superintendent. 

1920  Supt.  H.  J.  Stockton,  Annual  Report. 

1916  Supt.  I.  I.  Cammack,  Annual  Report. 

1917  M .  W.  Deputy,  Director  of  Teacher  Train- 

ing and  Extension  Work,  in  Annual 
Report  of  Superintendent. 

1915  Mrs.  Mary  D.  Bradford,  Supt.  Annual 

Report. 
1911-12     Supt.  M.  J.  Michael,  Annual  Report. 

1918  Supt.  B.  E.  McCormick,  Annual  Report. 
1920          Same. 

1918-19     Supt.  C.  P.  Lynch,  Annual  Report. 
1919-20     Supt.  C.  W.  Bickford,  Annual  Report. 

1915  Supt.  C.  S.  Jackson,  in  Annual  Report  of 

Superintendent. 
191-920     Asst.  Supt.  Lorena  M.  Frost,  in  Annual 

Report  of  School  Committee. 
1911-12     Supt.  L.  E.  Wolfe,  Annual  Report. 
1912-13     Same. 

1916  Supt.  L.  A.  Mahoney,  Annual  Report. 

1916  Supt.  W.  H.  Holmes,  Annual  Report. 

1917  Same. 

1910-11     Supt.  E.  S.  Monroe,  Annual  Report. 

1919  Supt.  A.  P.  Keith,  in  Annual  Report  of 

School  Department. 

1920  Same. 


138 


Improvement  of  Teachers  in  Service 


New  Britain,  Conn.,         1916 


NewYorkCity,N.Y.,(l) 

(2) 

North  Adams,  Mass., 
Olean,  N.  Y., 

Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
Pittsfield,  Mass., 
Portland,  Me., 
Portland,  Ore., 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y., 
Providence,  R.  I., 

Quincy,  Mass., 
Raleigh,  N.  C., 

Reading,  Pa., 
Richmond,  Va., 


(1) 

(2) 


1914 

1914 
1915 
1920 
1907-11 

1915 
1916 
1916 
1919 
1915 
1918 
1915 
1915-16 

1916 
1913-14 

1915-16 
1910-11 

1914 
1915 

1917 
1917 


Rochester,  N.  Y.,       (1)  1911-13 

(2)  1911-13 

(3)  1911-13 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,           (1)  1916-17 


(2)  1916-17 

(3)  1916-17 

Salt  Lake  City,Utah,  1916 

Savannah,  Ga.,  1911 


Miss  Fallon,  Supervisor  of  Instruction  for 
Elementary  Grades  in  Annual  Report 
of  Superintendent. 

Thos.  W.  Churchill,  President  Board  of 
Education,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  Wm.  H.  Maxwell,  Annual  Report. 

Same. 

Supt.  B.  J.  Merriam,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  S.  J.  Slawson,  in  Course  of  Study 
of  Olean  Public  Schools. 

Supt.  J.  P.  Garber,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  Wm.  Davidson,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  C.  G.  Persons,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  E.  D.  Fuller,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  L.  R.  Alderman,  Annual  Report. 

Same. 

Supt.  S.  R.  Shear,  Annual  Report. 

First  Asst.  Supt.,  in  Annual  Report  of 
School  Committee. 

Supt.  A.  L.  Barbour,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  F.  M.  Harper,  in  Annual  Report 
of  Raleigh  Township  Graded  Schools. 

Same. 

Supt.  C.  E.  Foos,  in  Annual  Report  of 
Board  of  Education. 

Supt.  J.  A.  C.  Chandler,  Annual  Report. 

E.  E.  Smith,  Third  Asst.  Supt.,  in  Annual 
Report  of  Superintendent. 

Supt.  J.  A.  C.  Chandler,  Annual  Report. 

Minnie  L.  Davis,  Supervisor  of  Primary 
Grades  in  Annual  Report  of  Superin- 
tendent. 

P.  B.  Duffy,  Report  of  President  of  Board 
of  Education. 

Supt.  H.  S.  Weet,  Triennial  Report. 

Edith  A.  Scott,  The  Normal  Training 
School,  in  Triennial  Report. 

Progress  of  St.  Louis  Schools  During 
Superintendent  Blewett's  Adminis- 
tration, in  Annual  Report  of  Public 
Schools. 

E.  Geo.  Payne,  Section  in  Annual  Report 
of  St.  Louis  Public  Schools. 

Annual  Report  of  St.  Louis  Public  Schools. 

Supt.  E.  A.  Smith,  Annual  Report. 

Supt.  L.  R.  Myers,  Annual  Report. 


Bibliography 


139 


Scranton,  Pa., 


Seattle,  Wash., 

1910 

Sheboygan,  Wis., 

1913-14 

Somerville,  Mass., 

1918-19 

Spartanburg,S.  C., 

1918-19 

Spokane,  Wash., 

1911-12 

Springfield,  Ohio, 

1913 

1916-17 

1921 

Stamford,  Conn., 

1917 

1921 

Superior,  Wis., 

1912-13 

Topeka,  Kas., 

1913-14 

1914-15 

Trenton,  N.  J., 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Utica,  N.  Y., 

1914-15 

Washington,  D.  C., 

1915 

1916 

Waterbury,  Conn., 

1918 

Wheeling,  W.  Va., 

1906 

1908 

Wichita,  Kas., 

1912-13 

1913-14 

Williamsport,  Pa., 

1918-19 

Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  July 

1919 

Worcester,  Mass., 


1915  Supt.    S.    E.    Weber,    Annual   Report   of 

School  Directors. 

Supt.  F.  B.  Cooper,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  H.  F.  Leverenz,  Manual  of  Public 

Schools. 

Supt.  C.  S.  Clark,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  F.  Evans,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  B.  M.  Watson,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  C.  Boggess,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  G.  E.  McCord,  Annual  Report. 
Same. 
Supt.  Thompson,  Annual  Report  of  School 

Committee. 
Same. 

Supt.  W.  E.  Maddock,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  H.  B.  Wilson,  Annual  Report. 
Same. 
Supt.  E.  Mackey,  Annual  Report  of  Board 

of  Education. 
Same. 
Same. 
Same. 

Supt.  W.  B.  Sprague,  Annual  Report. 
Annual  Report  of  Superintendent. 
Same. 
Supervisor  of  Kindergarten  and  Primary 

Grades  in  Annual  Report  of  Board  of 

Education. 

Supt.  H.  B.  Work,  Annual  Report. 
Same. 

Supt.  L.  W.  Mayberry,  Annual  Report. 
Same. 

Supt.  F.  W.  Robbins,  Annual  Report. 
Supt.  W.  A.  Mowry,  in   Annual   Report 

of  School  Committee. 
1919          Asst.  Supt.  J.  F.  Gannon,  in  Public  School 

Report. 


The  author  of  this  dissertation,  Charles 
Russell,  was  born  at  Ithaca,  New  York,  on  April  24th, 
1893.  He  received  his  early  education  at  the  Horace 
Mann  School,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, graduating  from  the  High  School  of  the 
same  institution  in  1911.  He  attended  Haverford 
College,  Haverford,  Pa.,  from  1910  to  1912  and 
Macdonald  College,  McGill  University,  Montreal, 
Canada,  from  1912  to  1915,  from  which  University  he 
received  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  in  Agri- 
culture in  1915.  He  was  a  student  in  the  Columbia 
University  Summer  Session  of  1910,  prior  to  his  en- 
trance to  Haverford  College,  and  again  in  the  summer 
sessions  of  1920  and  1921,  and  at  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  from  1920  to  1922. 


